OTHING 

-CARE-COST 

;NCKWOOLMAN,B.S. 


UC-NRLF 


CLOTHING 

CHOICE  CARE  COST 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME  MANUALS 

Edited  by  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

CLOTHING  FOR  WOMEN 

BY  LAtRA  I.BALDT,  B.S. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

454  pages,  7  colored  plates,  262  illustrations  in  text 

SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

BY  OLA  POWELL 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  WASHINGTON,   D.  C. 

370  pages,  4  colored  plates,  153    illustrations  in  text 

HOME  AND  COMMUNITY  HYGIENE 
BY  JEAN  BROADHURST,  PH.D. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

428  pages,  1  colored  plate,    118  illustrations  in  text 

THE  BUSINESS  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

BY  C.  W.  TABER 

AUTHOR  OP  TABER'B  DIETETIC  CHARTS, 
NfRBES'   MEDICAL.  DICTIONARY,  ETC. 

438  pages.     Illustrated. 


HOUSEWIFERY 


BY  L.  RAY  BALDERSTON,  B.S. 

TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

450  pages,  1  colored  plate,  illustrated  in  text 


MILLINERY     IN  PBEPARATION 
BY  EVELYN  SMITH  TOBEY,  B.S. 

TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FAMILY  LIFE  SERIES 

Edited  by  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS.  PH.D. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

CLOTHING 

CHOICE      CARE      COST 

BY  MARY  SCHENCK  W(  JOLMAN,  B.S. 

290  pages.     Illu.str:it«-d. 

SUCCESSFUL  FAMILY  LIFE  ON  THE 
MODERATE  INCOME 

247  pages  BY  MARY  HINMAN  ABEL 


»   '*  >, 


V,    0  " 
LIPPINCOTT  (s  FAMILY  LIFE -skaii'S 

EDITED   BT   BENJAMIN    R.   ANDREWS,  PH.D.,   COLUMBIA   UNIV. 

CLOTHING 


CHOICE  CARE  COST 


BY 

MARY  SCHENCK  WOOLMAN,  B.S. 

AUTHOR  OV  "A  SEWING    COURSE,"    "THE   MAKING   OF   A    TRADE  SCHOOL,"    "A   CLOTHING  INFORMATION 
BUREAU,"    AND  JOINT-AUTHOR  WITH  ELLEN  BEERS  MC  GOWAN,  B.S.,  OF 

"  TEXTILES,  A  HAND  BOOK  FOR  THE  CONSUMER." 

FORMER    PROFESSOR    OF    HOUSEHOLD    ARTS    EDUCATION    IN    TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBL\    UNIVERSITY ; 

ORGANIZER  AND  FIRST  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  MANHATTAN  TRADE  SCHOOL  FOR  GIRLS',    TEXTILE  SPECIALIST  FOR 

MASSACHUSETTS  UNDER  THE  WAR  SERVICE  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


ILLUSTRATED 

>K«<)\D    EDITION',    REVISED 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


•jH 
fe 
^ 


COPYRIGHT,    1920,    BT  J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT,    IQ22,   BY   J.    B.    L1PPINCOTT   COMPANY 


PRINTED   BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

EAST   WASHINGTON   BQUAKE   PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA,   U.  8.  A. 


PREFACE 

WASTE  is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  high  prices.  It  has  become 
a  habit  with  large  numbers  of  people,  but  must  be  checked  or 
prices  may  go  still  higher.  This  can  only  be  accomplished  by  each 
individual  consumer  and  family  buyer  locking  her  pocketbook  and 
only  opening  it  when  an  article  is  absolutely  necessary  for  health  and 
comfort  in  living,  is  a  worthy  article,  and  is  not  too  high  in  price 
for  its  intrinsic  .value.  To  do  this  wisely  will  require  the  education 
of  many  of  our  citizens  in.  the  entire  field  of  expenditure,  including 
the  wise  selection  of  textiles  and  clothing. 

As  long  as  there  are  more  buyers  than  commodities  prices  will 
continue  high.  Therefore  earnest  effort  for  thrift  in  clothing  will 
react  to  advantage  on  the  family  and  on  the  nation.  During  the 
war  the  citizen  saved  as  never  before  for  the  gravity  of  the  issue  was 
realized.  The  appeal  for  thrift  fell  on  willing  ears,  and  it  was  a 
surprise  to  find  the  giant  in  anticipation  dwindled  to  a  dwarf  in 
realization  and  the  household,  though  limited  in  its  outlay,  con- 
tinued to  thrive. 

A  riot  of  extravagance  in  buying  followed  the  war.  The  ease 
with  which  money  had  been  made  in  America  has  made  extrava- 
gance, or  at  least  thoughtless  buying,  a  national  habit.  It  is  the 
great  opportunity  now  of  every  citizen  to  study  the  best  way  to 
economize  and  also  to  spend.  The  clothing  bill  of  twenty-three 
million  families  is  said  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  five  billions  a 
year.  Every  individual  and  family  should  endeavor  to  lessen  this 
as  a  national  service.  It  will  not  only  create  a  personal  margin 
to  meet  the  high  cost  of  living  in  the  family,  but  save  material  and 
labor  for  the  entire  nation.  Giving  up  luxuries  and  lavish  clothing 
and  purchasing  reliable  and  substantial  garments  are  desirable.  It 
is  not  so  much  to  stop  spending  as  to  buy  with  wisdom  with  the 
needs  of  the  present  era  in  view  that  is  needed. 

This  book  faces  the  every-day  living  conditions  of  the  people  and 
treats  clothing  in  its  selection,  use,  care,  and  cost.  It  is  the  result 
of  many  years  of  personal  experience  in  technical  and  popular 


484 


vi  PREFACE 

instruction  in  textiles  and  clothing  to  college  students  at  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  and  at  Simmons  College,  Boston;  to 
Women's  Clubs;  to  young  wage  earners  at  the  Manhattan  Trade 
School  for  Girls,  Xevv  York  City;  to  buyers  and  managers  in  the 
retail  trade,  and  recently,  during  the  war,  as  a  textile  specialist  in 
the  service  of  the  government  among  home  keepers  and  exten- 
sion leaders. 

Help  in  obtaining  information  on  the  conditions  of  the  time 
and  for  the  best  procedure  on  the  part  of  the  consumer  was  sought 
from  federal,  state,  municipal,  and  household  sources;  editors  of 
trade  magazines,  manufacturers,  and  the  retail  trade  also  willingly 
gave  their  suggestions — to  all  of  whom  the  author  wishes  to  express 
her  gratitude.  It  now  goes  out  with  the  hope  that  it  may  help 
solve  some  of  the  home  problems  of  the  present  and  have  some  part 
in  creating  a  more  sagacious  consumer — one  who  is  wise  in 
the  business-like  organization  of  the  family  budget,  who  appre- 
ciates her  influence  on  the  output  of  the  great  textile  and  clothing 
industries  which  she  sways  and  who  has  patriotism  to  forward  the 
Thrift  Movement  in  every  way  in  her  power.  The  hope  is  to  reach 
many  groups  of  people — buyers  and  sales  people  in  the  retail  trade, 
and  the  advertisers  of  clothing,  that  they  may  assist  the  consumer 
by  appreciating  the  value  of  staple  goods,  by  knowing  the  intrinsic 
worth  of  the  stock  under  their  charge,  and  by  being  absolutely 
honest  in  their  statements;  the  extension  service  of  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Department  witli  its  clothing  workers  who  are 
meeting  hundreds  of  thousands  of  women  and  girls  in  rural  clubs; 
the  staff  of  teachers  of  Home  Economics  in  universities,  colleges, 
normal,  technical,  vocational,  home-making,  secondary,  elementary, 
continuation  and  evcninir  schools  that  they  may  more  than  ever 
emphasize  the  wise  selection  of  clothing  and  textiles;  the  vast  body 
of  children  and  young  women  in  the  schools,  who  are  the  future 
consumers  of  the  nation,  that  they  may  individually  do  their  part 
for  National  Thrift,  and  the  two  million  club  women  who  for  some 
years  have  been  at  work  to  better  conditions  in  textiles  and  clothing. 

If  the  reader  wishes  more  information  on  nirtliods  of  niannt'ac- 
1 1  may  be  of  service  to  consult  "  Textiles,"  Woolman  and 
Mcijowan.  THE  AUTHOK. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

WITH  the  warmest  appreciation  the  author  acknowledges  her 
debt  to  the  unfailing  kindness  of  Mr.  James  Chittick,  Consulting 
Textile  Specialist,  who  gave  his  help  in  the  chapter  on  "  Silk 
Clothing,"  and  contributed  the  section  in  that  chapter  on  "  How  to 
Tell  Textile  Materials  " ;  to  Mr.  Samuel  Dale,  editor  of  "  Textiles  " ; 
to  Mr.  George  F.  Smith,  President  of  the  Smith-Dove  Manufactur- 
ing Co.;  to  Mr.  A.  B.  Clough,  of  Lawrence  &  Co.;  and  to  Lieu- 
tenant Colonel  D'Olier,  who  organized  the  American  Army  Salvage 
Plants  in  France,  all  of  whom  read  parts  of  the  manuscript  and 
made  suggestions  in  line  with  the  latest  conditions  in  the  textile 
trade;  to  Dr.  Evangeline  Young,  who  reviewed  the  chapter  on 
"  Clothing  and  Health  " ;  to  Miss  L.  R,  Balderston  and  Mrs.  Evelyn 
S.  Tobey,  of  Teachers  College,  who  have  read  sections  of  the  book 
and  given  their  suggestions ;  to  Mrs.  N.  B.  Judy,  who  prepared  the 
charts  on  clothing  renovation  w^hich  were  the  result  of  her  personal 
work  at  the  LTniversity  of  Washington  at  Seattle;  to  Miss  Helen 
Louise  Johnson,  who  in  her  busy  editorial  life  wrote  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Biennial  Dress  which  she  has  standardized;  to  Miss 
Grace  Wilson  Ripley,  who  drew  the  designs  for  the  simple  yet 
attractive  gowns  that  anyone  can  make;  and  to  Mr.  Wilbur 
N".  Nugent,  Circulation  Manager  of  Women's  Wear  and  the  Daily 
News  Record,  who  has  shown  constant  cooperation;  to  Dr.  Ben- 
jamin R.  Andrews,  who  has  given  constructive  suggestions  and  help- 
ful criticism  on  the  entire  book,  and  finally  to  Mrs.  Ellen  Beers 
McGowan,  instructor  in  Household  Chemistry  and  Textile  Chemistry 
in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  to  whom  special  thanks 
are  due  for  skilled  and  sympathetic  aid  upon  the  whole  manuscript, 
thus  renewing  a  literary  association  of  years  standing  in  the  field 
of  textiles. 


THE  NEW  CONSUMER 

Is  aware  of  the  fact  that  to  buy  clothing  wisely  requires  the 
development  of  her  intelligence  on  new  lines,  a  more  perfect  under- 
standing of  methods  of  thrift,  and  a  thorough  application  of  the 
laws  of  health. 

Lives  on  a  budget  and  makes  a  plan,  after  due  consideration  of 
her  income,  before  buying  the  season's  clothing. 

Knows  the  names  of  staple  materials  and  can  identify  them. 

Has  trained  her  hand  to  feel  and  her  eye  to  see  differences  be- 
tween fibers  and  between  poor  and  good  cloths. 

Knows  the  properties  and  values  of  the  four  leading  textiles. 

Knows  the  prices  of  staple  goods  in  relation  to  their  reliability. 

Has  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  growth,  manufacture,  dyeing 
and  finishing  of  textiles  to  aid  her  in  judgment. 

Has  methods  of  testing  the  value  of  fabrics  which  she  uses  to 
determine  their  worth  before  investing  in  them. 

Demands  good  material,  good  design,  and  good  workmanship  in 
ready-to-wear  garments  and  clothing  accessories. 

Makes  an  effort  to  find  where  reliable  materials  are  made  and 
asks  for  goods  from  those  factories. 

Requires  honest  information  from  the  sales  force  and  from 
advertisements,  and  frequents  those  stores  which  have  proved  them- 
selves reliable.  If  she  has  been  misinformed  she  returns  the  goods, 
demanding  reimbursement. 

Reali/es  her  responsibility  as  a  consumer  for  the  costs  of  special 
services  in  the  department  stores  and  endeavors  to  improve  condi- 
tions and  to  meet  the  requests  of  the  stores. 

Is  anxious  to  have  standard  materials  on  the  market  which  she 
<  an  identify,  and  is  willing  to  pay  a  gooji  price  for  them. 

Believes  rapid  changes  of  fashion  with  the  attendant  showiness 
and  weakness  of  fabrics  to  be  a  disadvantage  to  producer  and 
consumer  alike. 

Is  working  for  the  standardization  of  the  every-day  business 
dress  which  means  not  uniformity,  but  economy,  modesty,  person- 
ality, and  beauty, 
viii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

THE   NEW   CONSUMER viii 

I.  CLOTHING  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY 1 

Clothing  Industries.  The  Importance  of  Dress.  The  World 
Judges  us  from  our  Appearance.  Dress  Largely  Influences 
our  Actions.  The  Way  Wte  Clothe  Ourselves  Has  Its  Effect 
on  Mind  and  Soul.  Clothing  Reflects  the  Spirit  of  the 
Age.  Efficiency  Requires  That  We  Have  Comfort  in  Our 
Clothing.  Dress  Has  Its  Influence  in  Betraying  Emotions. 
Some  Callings  Require  Special  Dress.  To  be  Well-dressed 
is  a  Genuine  Satisfaction.  Elimination  of  Waste.  What 
can  the  Citizen  do? 

II.  WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING 13 

The  Wool  Situation.  Raise  More  Sheep.  Wool  and  the 
Sheep.  \Vool  By-Products.  Representative  Materials.  The 
Industry  in  Woolens  and  Worsteds,  Carded  Wools,  Combed 
Wools,  Knit  Goods,  Union  Goods,  Felt.  Properties  of  Wool. 
Suggestions. 

III.  COTTON  CLOTHING 27 

The  Cotton  Situation.  Cotton  Fabrics.  The  Industry.  The 
Grading  of  Cotton.  Cotton  Wastes.  The  Beginning  of 
Modern  Industry.  Cotton  Yarn  Making.  Cotton  Finishing. 
Printing  Designs.  Laces  and  Findings.  The  Properties. 
Suggestions. 

IV.  SILK  CLOTHING 46 

The  Silk  Situation.  The  Silk  Industry.  Properties  of  Silk. 
Leading  Silk  Materials.  Finishing  of  Silk.  Adulterations  and 
Substitutions.  Tests  for  Silk.  Washing  Silk.  How  to  Tell 
Textile  Materials,  Pure  Dye  and  Weighted  Silk,  Artificial 
Silk  and  Natural  Silk,  Spun  Silk  and  Reeled  Silk,  Spun  Silk 
and  Cotton,  Raw  Silk  and  Thrown  Silk,  Ordinary  Silk  and 
Tussah,  Cotton,  Mercerized  and  Unmercerized,  Cotton  and 
Linen,  To  Tell  Percentage  of  Cotton  hi  Mixed  Fabrics. 

V.  LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD 64 

The  Situation.  The  Industry.  Countries  Producing.  Proper- 
ties of  Linen.  Representative  Materials.  Comparing  Cotton 
and  Linen.  Suggestions. 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

VI.  CLOTHING  ACCESSORIES 75 

Leather  Goods — Shoes,  Gloves.  Knit  Goods  and  Hosiery. 
Rubber  Goods. 

VII.  CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH 82 

Clothing  as  a  Factor  in  Health.  Clothing  and  Bodily  Heat. 
Keeping  Warm.  Keeping  Dry.  Keeping  the  Body  Clean. 
Keeping  the  Body  Well  Ventilated.  Keeping  the  Body  Un- 
hampered and  Comfortable.  The  Part. Textiles  Play.  Sum- 
ming up  Efficient  Clothing.  Dangers. 

VIII.  INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING 10G 

The  Shopping  Situation.  The  Working  Basis.  Making  Plans. 
Wastes  and  Economies — Extravagance  in  Dress,  Rapid 
Changes  in  Fashion,  The  Need  of  the  Present  Time,  Bargain 
Counters.  Learning  to  Shop.  Retail  Trade.  Home  Tests 
of  Fabrics.  Labels  and  Legislation. 

IX.  SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING 121 

Conditions  in  Women's  Dress.  The  Effect  of  the  War  on 
Clothing.  Clothing  Conservation.  Uniform  Dress.  Every- 
day Clothing — Definite  Principles,  The  Clothing  Should  be 
Hygienic.  Inconspicuous  and  Unobtrusive  Clothing.  The 
Personal  Element.  Harmonious  Dress.  Dress  Hints. 

X.  THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE 144 

Budget  Making.  Budget  Studies.  The  Clothing  Divisions  of 
a  Budget.  The  Wardrobe.  Clothing  for  Various  Ages. 
Budget  Suggestions. 

XI.  THE  CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  OF  CLOTHING 173 

Care  of  Clothing  as  a  Part  of  National  Thrift.  Systematic 
Care — Care  and  Small  Repairs,  Care  of  Clothing  Saves  Money. 
Acting  Quickly.  Repairing  Supplies.  Textile  Requirements. 
The  Care  of  Various  Articles.  Appropriate  Dress  a  Factor 
in  Wear.  Putting  Clothing  Away  for  the  Winter.  Conserva- 
tion of  Hats.  Hints  for  Care  and  Repair.  Renovation,  Re- 
modelling or  Making-over. 

XII.  DYEING,  LAUNDRY,  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL 199 

Dyeing  and  Tinting — Acid  Colors,  Direct  Colors,  Developed 
Colors,  Sulphur  Colors,  Chrome  Colors,  Basic  Colors,  Vat 
Dyes,  Home  Tinting.  Home  Laundry.  Washing  Special 
'Articles.  Other  Treatments.  Removing  Spots  and  Stains — 
Fruit,  Chocolate,  Tea  and  Coffee,  Grease,  Mildew,  Ink,  Pitch 
and  Tar,  Greasy  Spots,  Blood  Stains,  Scorch,  IVrspimtion, 
Rust,  Paint,  Acid  Stains,  Mud  Spots  on  Cloth. 


CONTENTS  xi 

XIII.  A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU 216 

Community  Centers,  Chart  of  the  Interests.  The  Aim  and 
Work  of  the  Clothing  Bureau.  The  Ciothing  Facts  Bureau. 
Typical  Questions  asked  at  the  Clothing  Facts  Bureau.  The 
Three-fold  Ideal  for  Clothing  Conservation — Intelligence, 
Thrift,  Health.  Clothing  Commandments.  Posters.  Sensi- 
ble Standards  in  Dress.  Organization  of  a  Clothing  Bureau — 
The  Committee,  the  Director,  the  Space  Allotment,  the  Activ- 
ities— Files,  Card  Catalogues,  Clippings,  Posters,  Exhibits, 
Travelling  Exhibits,  Bulletin  Boards,  Slogans,  Publicity, 
Home  Visits,  Research  Center,  Classes  and  Club  Meetings, 
Volunteer  Assistance. 

XIV.  PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS 230 

Information  for  the  Consumer.  Progress  Through  Textile 
Standardization  and  Selection.  Opportunities  for  Service. 
Textiles  in  the  School.  The  "Style  Show"  hi  Education. 
The  Motion  Picture  as  a  Teacher.  Suggestive  Outlines  for 
Clothing  Instruction. 

APPENDIX 243 

Made-Over  Garments,  with  Charts 243 

Bibliography 253 

Glossary 260 


CLOTHING 

CHAPTER  I 
CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY 

Clothing  Industries. — The  average  person  seldom  takes  time  to 
consider  that  the  supplying  of  the  clothing  he  wears  is  made  possible 
by  a  series  of  interrelated  industries  of  huge  proportions  employing 
people  of  all  nations.  The  majority  of  the  1,702,520,366  inhabi- 
tants of  the  world  need  clothing,  and  among  them  are  the  105, 
110,620  citizens  of  the  United  States  of  which  he  is  one.  Political 
and  commercial  problems  of  the  time  are  involved  in  these  world- 
wide industries  and  frequently  the  demand  of  the  consumer  is  a 
factor  in  preventing  adequate  solution. 

It  is  reported  that  96  per  cent,  of  the  dry  goods  of  this  country 
are  bought  by  women.  It  can  be  appreciated  that  their  wishes  must 
largely  sway  the  market.  As  buyers,  therefore,  it  is  economically 
essential  that  they  should  understand  conditions  in  these  occupations 
and  buy  with  wisdom,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  themselves  and  their 
families,  but  for  the  sake  of  the  well-being  of  the  nation. 

The  enormous  extent  and  huge  investments  of  capital  in  the 
textile  and  clothing  industries  make  them  influential  in  world 
affairs.  The  great  increase  in  the  value  of  the  finished  product 
(cloth  or  clothing)  over  the  raw  product  (wool,  cotton,  silk  or  flax) 
puts  them  in  the  forefront  of  importance.  In  1914  the  textile  and 
clothing  industries  of  the  "United  States  were  reported  to  have  the 
following  value : — 

1 


2  CLOTHING 

Textiles  * 

Value  of  Products  Value  Added  by  Manufacture 

Cotton  $701,300,933      Cotton  $257,778,418 

Wool  404,249,813      Wool  166,186,315 

Hosiery    and  Hosiery  and 

Knit  Goods  258,912,903          Knit  Goods  112,225,445 

Silk  254,011,257      Silk  109,568,936 

Cordage  and  Cordage  and 

Twine  and  Twine  and 

Jute  and  Jute   and 

Linen  Goods  85,235,068         Linen  Goods  22,760,651 

Total  value 

of    products  $1,761,709,974     Total  value  added  $668.519,765 

Capital  Invested 

Cotton  $899,764,682 

Wool  497>699,293 

Hosiery    and 

Knit  Goods  215,826,340 

Silk  210,071,679 

Cordage  and 

Twine  and 

Jute  and 

Linen   Goods  98,561,044 

Total    capital 

invested  $1,921,923,038 

Keady-to-Wewr  Clothing  *  t 
Value  of  Products 

Men's  clothing  $458,211,000 

Women's    clothing  462,005,000 

Total  $920,216,000 

Capital  Invested 

Men's    clothing  $225,051,000 

Women's   clothing  153,549,000 

Total  t$378,600,000 

Total  value  of  products  in  the 
United  States  in  textile  and  clothing 

Textiles  $1,761,709,974 

Ready  to  wear  920,216,000 

Total  $2,681,925,974 


*  Census  of  Manufactures,   1914. 
fFairchild's  National  Directory,    1920. 

NOTE:  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  United  States  imports  large  quan- 
tities of  textiles  and  also  some  ready-to-wear  clothing. 


CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY        3 

The  problems  involved  in  successfully  conducting  these  indus- 
tries are  many  of  them  intimately  connected  with  the  expressed 
wishes  of  the  consumer.  If  he  would  be  worthy  as  a  citizen  he 
should  give  careful  consideration  to  matters  related  to  his  influence 
on  the  market.  To  understand  and  give  aid  requires  that  he  develop 
knowledge  on  many  related  subjects,  that  he  take  into  account  the 
problems  of  sanitation  and  health  in  connection  with  clothing 
manufacture  and  its  personal  care,  and  study  methods  of  thrift  and 
also  practice  them  as  a  result  of  the  knowledge  he  has  gained.  The 
chart  "Textile  and  Clothing  Interests/'  gives  seme  of  the  every  day 
matters  which  need  consideration  and  thought.  "Clothing, 
Choice,  Care,  Cost"  has  been  written  with  the  object  of  presenting 
phases  of  these  economic  questions.  It  is  the  same  aspects  of  the 
Clothing  Problem  which  are  the  concern  of  the  political  and  com- 
mercial world. 

The  Importance  of  Dress. — An  undue  and  wrongful  amount 
of  time  is  often  given  to  dress.  Extravagance  and  vulgarity  are 
shown  in  connection  with  it  for  which  there  is  no  excuse.  On  the 
other  hand,  individuals  are  to  be  found  who  consider  that  spending 
even  a  small  amount  of  time  in  making  themselves  attractive  is 
sinful  and  who  consequently  wear  homely,  inappropriate  and  often 
repulsive  garments.  These  extremes  show  a  wrong  psychology, 
for  attractive,  simple,  suitable  clothing  is  a  part  of  dignified 
personality.  Self-respect  requires  adequate  attention  to  appro- 
priate dress  for  our  station  and  our  income. 

The  World  Judges  us  from  our  Appearance. — Now  that  we 
are  clothed  animals  our  covering  is  an  important  item  in  the 
impression  we  make  upon  those  we  meet.  Neatness,  beauty  and 
dignity  in  dress  win  respect  and  admiration,  whereas  slovenly 
attire  is  a  factor  in  lack  of  success — suit,  neckwear,  hat,  shoes  and 
gloves  all  combining  in  the  effect.  To  be  overdressed  is,  in  reality, 
to  be  poorly  dressed  no  matter  how  beautiful  the  fabric  or  charming 
the  design  of  the  garment.  Those  who  apply  for  positions  and  are 
illy  clad  or  are  overdressed,  are  judged  as  lacking  in  common  sense. 
Their  appearance  is  against  them,  for  the  way  we  dress  is,  to  a 
large  extent,  an  evidence  of  our  mental  and  moral  equipment.  It 
is  the  personality  thrust  forward  into  the  attention  of  the  world 
and,  in  general,  it  receives  its  rightful  diagnosis.  It  is  important 


4  CLOTHING 

to  give  sufficient  thought  to  it  to  appear  before  the  public  with  the 
effect  we  would  like  to  make.  In  New  York,  many  years  ago  the 
street  cleaners  were  a  despised  class  dressed  as  they  were  in  their 
personal  clothing  which  was  often  ragged  and  dirty.  The  Street 
Commissioner,  General  Waring,  inaugurated  the  wearing  of  wash- 
able white  cotton  duck  and  changed  the  attitude  of  the  entire  city 
toward  these  public  servants.  Not  only  was  the  influence  of  the 
neat  uniform  felt  by  the  citizens  but  the  cleaners  gained  in  self- 
respect  for  themselves  and  for  their  task. 

Dress  Largely  Influences  our  Actions. — Those,  who  on  ac- 
count of  poverty,  are  poorly  dressed  will  usually  avoid  churches, 
public  assemblies,  and  the  brilliantly  lighted,  frequented  streets,  for 
they  fear  appearing  out  of  place  and  being  ridiculed.  Often  the  at- 
titude of  trying  to  escape  notice  becomes  a  habit  and  results  in  les- 
sened efficiency.  Well-dressed  people  have  the  personal  efficiency 
that  comes  from  knowing  that  if  their  clothing  happens  to  attract 
attention,  the  judgment  called  forth  will  be  favorable. 

The  homemaker  who  continually  wears  perishable  gowns 
when  doing  her  housework,  is  apt  to  develop  a  dislike  for  such 
tasks  and  often  neglects  them.  Garments  which  can  be  easily  soiled 
make  the  wearer  shrink  from  the  touch  of  dirty  little  fingers,  even 
of  a  well-loved  child,  and  this  discourages  the  natural  show  of 
affection.  A  short,  amply  wide  skirt,  or  bloomers  if  desired,  a 
loose  tunic  and  comfortable  low  heeled  shoes  will  make  housework 
a  matter  of  ease  or  even  of  joy.  A  wise  young  mother  has  special 
clothing  made  for  her  work — short,  comfortable,  attractive,  easily 
laundered  and  cheerful  in  color.  These  she  wears  during  the  hours 
when  the  housework  is  to  be  done  and  the  children  are  to  be  cared 
for.  The  babies  crawl  all  over  her  without  fear  of  hurting  her 
gown  and  they  love  the  bright  color. 

The  Way  we  Clothe  Ourselves  has  its  Effect  on  Mind  and 
Soul. — While  dross  is  proclaiming  to  the  world  the  sort  of  men  and 
women  we  are,  it  has  its  influence  upon  our  attitudes  and  thoughts 
and  influences  us  for  good  or  bad.  When  an  undue  amount  of  money 
is  spent  on  clothing  or  an  over  amount  of  time  taken  to  adorn,  alter 
or  purchase  it,  more  worth-while  occupations  IIMYP  to  be  neglected. 
There  is  not  timo  for  both  niul  tlio  choice  of  the  former  IIMS  its 
narrowing  effect.  The  world  usually  is  quick  to  grasp  the  self- 


CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY        5 

centered,  trivial  intellect  of  the  one  who  spends  all  of  her  time  on 
her  clothing  and  the  wearer  develops  more  and  more  a  selfish 
attention  to  her  own  personal  adornment-.  Able  young  women  are 
thus  lost  from  the  world's  work. 

Obtrusive  dress  may  be  an  end  in  itself  when  those  who  are  so 
attired  wish  to  attract  attention.  When  people  turn  and  stare  at  our 
clothing  we  may  be  sure  we  are  overdressed  or  something  is  amiss, 
for  dress  should  be  merely  an  attractive  background  to  personality. 
Clothing  has  been  worn  for  many  purposes — ornament,  protection, 
snobbery,  allurement,  and  impressive  dignity,  but  always  it  has  its 
psychological  influence  on  those  who  see  it  (though  not  always  the 
effect  the  wearer  desires)  and  also  its  effect  on  the  one  who  wears  it. 
Dress  may  have  a  refined,  artistic,  lovely  effect  or  it  may  be  a  harsh, 
discordant  note,  it  may  breathe  a  subtle  vulgarity  or  it  may  be 
simply  weak  and  foolish.  Each  kind  of  dress  indicates  the  per- 
sonality of  the  one  who  so  expresses  herself. 

Clothing  Reflects  the  Spirit  of  the  Age,  and  the  common 
thought  of  a  nation  is  indicated  in  the  style  of  its  garments.  The 
peasant  dress  of  Europe  and  the  great  historic  eras  of  fashionable- 
dress  are  history  in  the  concrete.  The  love  of  beauty  and  simplicity 
appears  in  the  Greek  gown,  Gothic  garments  resemble  the  architec- 
ture of  the  time  with  its  V  igh  points  and  pinnacles,  the  clothing  of 
the  Renaissance  is  full  of  ornament  in  fine  detail  and  design,  the 
dress  of  the  Friends  (Quakers),  in  its  quiet  grays  and  simple  lines, 
tells  of  the  tenets  of  their  faith,  and  Sisters  of  Charity  in  their 
religious  garb  still  reflect  the  spirit  that  gave  the  movement  birth. 
Eccentricity,  freedom,  unrefinement,  restraint,  dignity  and  beauty 
appear  at  intervals  in  the  fashions  as  the  people  are  controlled  by 
these  sentiments. 

Our  great-grandmothers  of  the  well-to-do  class  wore  heavy,  long, 
full  skirts,  tight  corsets,  close-fitting  waists,  lace  berthas  and  caps, 
hoop  skirts,  many  petticoats,  thin  silk  stockings  and  light-weight 
slippers.  They  had  ample  servants  to  rely  upon  and  were  expected 
to  be  frail  in  health  and  to  direct  the  work  rather  than  do  it 
themselves.  The  demand  upon  them  was  different  from  the  present 
and  their  delicate  appearance  and  manner  were  considered  marks 
of  breeding.  They  would  not  have  had  sufficient  energy  for  the 
requirements  of  this  age  and  their  dress  would  still  further  hamper 


6  CLOTHING 

them.  Economic  conditions  now  require  the  majority  of  women 
to  work,  for  servants  are  as  scarce  as  hoop  skirts.  The  dress  of 
the  past  had  to  be  discarded  for  something  more  useful,  thus 
fashion  echoed  the  voice  of  the  age. 

Efficiency  Requires  that  we  have  Comfort  in  Our  Clothing. 
Dress  can  ruin  health  and  spirits  and  cause  failure  in  the  given 
task.  When  garments  are  too  tight  the  free  movement  of  the  body 
is  impeded,  the  heart's  action  is  affected,  the  mind  cannot  act 
as  well  and  health  is  threatened.  Not  only  is  skill  dependent 
upon  bodily  comfort  but  the  adequate  and  graceful  use  of  the  body 
requires  that  it  have  easy  action.  The  wasp  waists  of  the  past  have 
disappeared  for  the  demand  on  women  in  modern  industry  and 
the  increase  in  out-of-door  games  could  not  be  met  in  such  a 
hampering  garment.  Tight  clothing  will  keep  people  from  ad- 
equate exercise  and  even  from  eating  enough.  Women  now  can 
walk,  hike,  play  golf  and  tennis,  and  ride  horseback,  thus  developing 
their  bodies  more  than  in  past  generations.  The  result  is  that  the 
height  of  women  has  increased,  their  physical  and  mental  alertness 
is  greater,  the  nerves  are  stronger,  and  their  natures  are  more  poised. 

The  clothing  of  the  present  is  undoubtedly  much  more  effi- 
cient than  was  that  of  the  past,  but  there  are  still  bad  points  to  be 
eliminated.  The  dress  of  the  day  is  accused  of  being  immodest 
but  it  is  not  so  of  necessity.  It  may  be  made  so  by  those  who 
wish  it  as  can  be  done  in  every  era  of  dress.  There  never  was  a 
time  when  clothing  for  active  women  was  nearer  the  ideal.  The 
short  skirt  is  comfortable,  hygienic  and  sensible.  It  does  not 
gather  dirt  wljich,  carried  into  the  home,  endangered  health.  It 
is  not  heavy  with  numerous  pleatings,  linings  and  trimmings, 
hence  is  less  fatiguing  than  it  once  was.  It  need  not  be  so  scant 
that  walking  is  difficult  or  the  figure  is  outlined.  Garments  are 
not  tight,  underwear  is  not  cumbersome,  but  is  suited  to  warm 
interiors,  and  outside  garments  can  be  put  on  for  out-of-doors, 
the  muscles  are  given  room  to  develop  and  the  lungs  to  obtain 
air.  Personality  in  dress  is  more  encouraged  than  ever  before. 

Dress  has  its  Influence  in  Portraying  Emotion. — Artists  in 
drama,  motion  picture  and  portraiture  know  the  importance  of 
dress  in  gaining  effects.  They  study  its  psychology  and  that  of 
color  in  order  to  help  the  beholder  to  easily  obtain  the  impression 


CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY        7 

they  desire  to  give.  The  emotions  they  wish  to  arouse  may  be 
intensified  by  the  garments  worn — the  nurse  dressed  in  fresh 
tailored  dress  with  white  apron  and  cap,  the  Madonna  in  flowing 
soft  blue,  the  unsuccessful  woman  in  dingy  colors  and  threadbare 
gown,  the  maiden,  full  of  joy  and  life,  in  soft  light  garments  and 
streaming  scarf,  the  ceremonial  occasion  with  its  rich  brocades, 
and  heavy  silks.  Ponderous  stuffs  such  as  velvets,  stiff  satins  and 
brocades,  sweeping  cloaks,  furs  and  rich  laces  give  dignity.  Flow- 
ing, sheer  draperies  communicate  the  feeling  of  life,  joy,  youth  and 
freedom.  A  well  groomed  man  or  woman  in  clothes  of  subdued, 
rich  hue  and  refined  lines  announce  in  their  appearance  the  wealth 
and  culture  natural  to  them. 

Color  has  its  influence  also  and  grief  is  portrayed  in  black,  truth 
and  womanliness  in  blue,  joy  and  cheerfulness  in  yellow,  innocence 
in  white  and  royalty  in  rich  purple.  Vulgarity  is  represented  in 
loud  colors  or  strong  contrasts,  and  refinement  in  harmonious, 
broken,  soft,  pure  tones.  Monotony  is  relieved  by  a  dash  of  a  con- 
trasting color  complementary  to  the  prevailing  tone,  such  touches 
being  like  a  clear,  musical  note. 

The  artist  must  study  each  model  individually  in  relation  to 
dress  and  its  color  if  he  would  obtain  the  highest  success.  The 
complexion,  eyes,  hair  and  personality  must  be  considered  in  order  to 
bring  out  the  charm  desired  or  the  repellent  note.  Some  colors  give 
a  feeling  of  warmth,  a  hot  day  may  become  unbearable  by  the  use  of 
tones  in  their  intensity  or  by  emphasizing  red,  orange  or  yellow. 
White,  broken  blues,  quiet  greens  and  soft  violets  have  a  cooling 
influence.  Bright  colors  will  increase  the  apparent  size  of  the 
wearer.  An  artist  would  never  dress  a  stout  woman  in  such  colors 
unless  he  wished  to  give  a  displeasing  effect.  Subdued  tones  are 
refined  and  soft,  graceful  fabrics  make  colors  softer,  for  gray  ap- 
pears in  the  folds.  Color  also  has  its  influence  on  the  wearer, 
exciting,  depressing,  refining  or  coarsening  as  the  case  may  be. 

Some  Callings  Require  Special  Dress. — In  the  Middle  Ages 
artisans  wore  their  characteristic  dress.  This  practice  fell  into 
disuse  as  ideas  of  democracy  developed  for  it  was  felt  to  lead  to 
class  distinction.  The  present  demand  for  it  is  on  account  of  effi- 
ciency. The  army,  navy  and  other  branches  of  the  service  wear  their 
practical  uniforms,  municipal  servants  (policemen,  firemen,  letter 


8  CLOTHING 

carriers)  have  their  distinctive  garb  fitted  to  the  needs,  nurses  in  the 
hospitals  and  deaconesses  in  the  churches  have  their  distinguishing 
dress.  Business  women  of  the  better  class,  wear  tailored  suits  (so 
simple  as  to  be  almost  a  uniform)  realizing  that  strong,  sensible 
garments  aid  in  personal  concentration  and  readiness  for  action 
and  have  their  good  influence  on  the  atmosphere  of  the  office. 
Special  garments  are  worn  for  sport.  In  the  far  West,  where  the 
mountains  are  very  high  and  rugged,  the  women  wear  trousers  for 
climbing,  for  skirts  are  dangerous,  and  in  the  East  similar  garments 
are  being  adopted.  Home  makers,  especially  in  the  rural  districts, 
feel  that  a  gown  fitted  to  the  heavy  housework  and  cooking  and  for 
work  in  the  garden  is  an  essential.  Women  are  freer  than  they 
once  were  to  wear  the  dress  suited  to  the  activities,  for  many 
varieties  of  attractive  uniforms  were  worn  by  them  for  war  service 
and  the  public  became  used  to  seeing  them  so  attired. 

A  style  of  dress,  long  considered  the  correct  thing  for  middle- 
aged  women,  fortunately  has  passed.  No  longer  is  it  considered 
necessary  for  women  over  forty  to  put  on  a  cjip  and  a  somber  gown 
and  act  as  if  youth  and  cheer  were  over,  as  was  the  custom  a  few 
generations  ago.  While  too  juvenile  clothing  is  not  dignified  for 
the  matron,  she  can  now  revel  in  beautiful  fabrics  and  colors  and 
wear  sport  clothing  as  long  as  she  has  the  energy  and  inclination 
to  do  so.  Clothing  can  make  for  happiness  and  it  is  well  to  be  so 
clad  that  the  joy  of  living  is  secured  for  thus  health  is  retained. 
A  happy  being  can  do  more  in  a  day  than  a  sad  one  and  clothing 
cjin  have  its  share  in  causing  cheerfulness  or  gloom. 

To  be  Well-dressed  is  a  Genuine  Satisfaction.  —  The  soldier 
enjoys  his  well  fitting  uniform: 


I   first   put   tliis  uniform  on, 
I  said  as  I  looked  in  tin-  ;_'!.. 
It'-  onei  to  a  million    if   JIMV   civilian, 
My  figure  or  form  can  surpass.  " 


The  society  woman  revels  in  her  harmonious  LTOWII.  the  debutante, 
in  her  party  frock,  while  the  vigorous  man  appreciates  his  golf 
suit.  Those  who  cease  to  care  how  they  look  are  descending  in  Ihe 
scale  of  life  and  are  losing  self-respect.  It  is  a  delight  to  meet  an 
older  person,  man  or  woman,  who,  while  wasting  n<>  time  on  un- 
necessarily frivolous  garments,  does  care  to  look  the  best  possible. 


CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY        9 

"  Thank  God  for  clothes ! 

Not  that  they  shield  us  from  the  winter  rude, 
Not    that  they  foster  social  rectitude, 
And  cloak  deficiencies — for  none  of  these; 
But    for  the  warm  uplift  that  furbelows 
Can  kindle  in  this  sorry  human  clay — 
The  glory  and  the  strut  of  fine  array; 
Thank  God  for  clothes !  " 

Julia  Wilbor  Tompkins. 

Elimination  of  Waste. — The  standard  of  living  in  the  United 
States  is  higher  than  in  other  nations  but  much  money  is  spent 
unnecessarily,  consequently  the  savings  of  the  people  are  small.  The 
per  capita  savings  in  this  country  before  the  war  were  less  than  in 
other  nations.  Switzerland  saved  per  annum  about  $85  for 
each  individual ;  New  Zealand  put  aside  $98,  but  this  country 
saved  but  $50.  The  citizen  of  the  United  States  receives  higher 
wages  than  are  paid  elsewhere,  but  the  inclination  to  thoughtless 
spending  has  been  universal.  The  National  Treasury  Department 
has  been  making  an  earnest  effort  to  increase  thrift  and  has  met  with 
some  success,  for  the  investment  of  small  amounts  in  Government 
Securities  is  larger  than  in  past  years.  Wastes  still  occur,  however, 
as  a  result  of  methods  and  practices  long  prevalent  in  the  homes 
and  in  industry.  It  is  largely  in  eliminating  wastes  that  the 
citizen  can  do  his  share  in  improving  the  family  assets  and  in  ad- 
vancing national  wealth  and  strength.  No  longer  should  any 
one  say  "My  parents  ran  things  this  way  and  it  is  good  enough  for 
me."  The  world  economic  conditions  have  changed  and  to  be 
successful  as  a  people  it  is  necessary  to  meet  the  new  era  with 
methods  adapted  to  it. 

In  January  1921,  Herbert  Hoover,  at  that  time  President  of  the 
Federated  American  Engineering  Societies,  appointed  a  committee 
to  survey  wastes  in  six  representative  industries.  Among  the 
specific  occupations  selected  three  were  connected  with  clothing, 
ready-made  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  and  textiles.  Unproductive 
or  wasteful  methods  have  been  reported  in  the  first  industry.  The 
consumer  is  equally  responsible  with  the  manufacturer  for  some 
kinds  of  clothing  waste,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  many  styles  offered 
at  any  one  time,  and  the  demand  for  rapid  changes  of  fashion.  A 
variety  of  garments  between  which  to  choose  is  demanded  by  the 


10  CLOTHINP 

shopper  and  the  manufacturer  offers  many  models  to  stimulate  pur- 
chase and  for  fear  a  competitor  will  outdo  him.  Only  a  few  of  the 
designs  are  truly  popular  and  the  remainder  are  usually  sold  at  a 
losing  reduction.  Statistics  given  in  the  September,  1921  number 
of  the  Annals  of  the  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  state 
that  "one  concern  offered  its  customers  in  the  heavy-weight  season 
of  1920,  thirty-one  models  of  overcoats,  twenty-one  models  of  sack 
suits,  each  in  three  styles  of  lining  construction,  three  combinations 
of  lining  materials,  and  nearly  1,100  varieties  of  cloth.  Thus  each 
customer  has  a  free  choice  among  278,000  possible  combinations." 
So  large  a  series  of  opportunities  are  not,  in  general,  offered  but  the 
trend  is  in  this  direction. 

Seasonal  employment  in  the  ready-made  industry  is  declared 
to  be  heavy  waste.  The  consumer  is  much  to  blame  for  this  con- 
dition in  demanding  frequent  changes  of  fashion  for,  as  a  result,  the 
workers  are  rushed,  at  intervals,  to  supply  the  markets  and  are  idle 
between  times.  Industrial  ill-will  is  thus  fostered.  A  leading  trade 
organ*  states  "The  policy  of  seasonal  shutdowns  and  the  'sell-then- 
make'  policy  that  is  necessary  for  clothing  manufacturers  to  pursue 
are  a  direct  result  of  the  consumers'  demand."  Many  purchasers  will 
cry  out  against  wastes  as  they  read  about  them  in  the  daily  papers 
but  few  realize  their  own  responsibility  or,  if  they  do,  are  too  indif- 
ferent to  endeavor  to  organize  a  reform  among  the  consumers. 

Constructive  tendencies  in  clothing  industries  that  eliminated 
waste  in  production  and  in  selling  would  undoubtedly  result  in 
some  lowering  of  prices  and  thus  the  shopper  would  be  benefited 
but,  on  his  side,  there  is  an  even  more  serious  waste  in  the  conduct 
of  the  purchasing  for  household.  Extravagance  in  time  and  money 
are  to  be  found  in  the  choice,  purchase,  making,  care  and  renova- 
tion of  the  family  clothing.  An  "appraisal  of  wastes"  is  needed  in 
the  homes  as  well  as  in  industry.  Unnecessary  buying,  demand 
upon  non-essentials,  the  wrong  use  of  materials,  the  throwing 
aside  of  good  garments  before  they  are  half  worn  out,  taking  too 
much  time  or  paying  another  for  doing  worthless  things  ;m>  some 
of  the  textile  wastes  of  the  household.  The  Home  Economics 
Division  of  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  and  the 
Textile  Section  of  the  Amerirnn  II«.m<>  Economics  Association  are 

*  Daily  News  Record,  October  1,  1921. 


CLOTHING  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY  11 

considering  the  efficient  way  to  conduct  those  occupations  of  the 
home  dealing  with  the  clothing  problem,  and  to  eliminate  waste 
in  purchase.  The  consumer  should  do  all  possible  to  encourage 
and  follow  such  suggestions  as  may  be  offered. 

Costs  of  Clothing. — Complaints  of  the  undue  cost  of  textiles 
and  clothing  are  frequent  but  if  the  consumer  would  take  time  to 
study  the  commercial  and  industrial  undertakings  required  to  de- 
liver a  ready-to-wear  suit  to  the  purchaser  the  wonder  would  be 
that  so  little  is  charged.  The  preparation  of  the  raw  materials,  the 
storage  in  costly  warehouses,  the  long  distances  to  travel  to  the 
factories,  the  elaborate  manufacturing  processes,  the  various  finishes 
and  the  dyeing,  the  many  middlemen  (when  big  business  is  con- 
cerned neither  grower  nor  manufacturer  has  time  or  strength  to 
market  his  own  goods),  the  ready-to-wear  makers  (cutters  up), 
and  finally  the  retailer  all  add  to  the  costs.  The  price  of  the  cloth 
or  garment  includes  all  the  costs  of  all  of  the  steps  taken  to  get  it 
to  the  consumer.  In  the  better  grade  of  ready-to-wear  the  labor 
costs  are  often  more  than  half.  In  all  the  textile  trades  the  labor 
costs  are  a  huge  factor.  The  President  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Wool  Manufacturers  states*  that  85  per  cent,  of  the 
costs  of  finished  cloth  consists  of  wages  of  labor  direct  and  in- 
direct. The  demand  for  many  models  and  many  varieties  of  fabric 
increase  the  expense.  It  is  rarely  that  all  sell  to  equal  advan- 
tage and  the  cost  has  to  be  met  by  the  next  lot  sent  out.  Rapid 
changes  of  fashion  figure  in  the  final  costs. 

What  Can  the  Citizen  Do? — The  proper  "choice"  of  clothing, 
and  the  proper  "care"  of  clothing  will  go  far  to  solve  the  problem 
of  the  "cost." 

Keep  accounts  and  use  a  clothing  budget. 

Study  values  in  textiles  and  know  their  costs  and  learn  how 
to  test  the  quality  of  cloth. 

Study  the  construction  of  clothing  to  know  how  many  yards 
it  will  take  to  make  a  gown  before  shopping  for  the  cloth. 

Use  to  advantage  the  clothing  and  textiles  already  in  the 
home  before  buying  new.  Garments  often  lie  forgotten  for  years 
in  trunks,  drawers  and  closets. 

*  Mr.  John  P.  Wood  in  Bulletin  of  the  National  Association  of  Wool 
Manufacturers,  July,  1921. 


12  CLOTHING 

Shop  only  after  considering  the  needs  of  the  year  ahead  in  rela- 
tion to  the  money  there  is  to  spend. 

Have  clothing  so  made  or  so  choose  ready-to-wear  garments  that 
the  style,  being  simple  and  conservative,  will  not  go  out  of  fashion 
and  making  over  later  will  be  an  easy  task. 

Care  or  all  clothing  so  that  garments  may  wear  long  and  well. 

Keep  the  number  of  articles  in  the  wardrobe  at  the  minimum 
for  economy  and  comfort. 

Such  renovation  as  will  continue  the  life  of  a  good  garment  or 
make  a  useful  article  for  another  should  be  a  part  of  the  economy 
of  every  household.  Clothing  should  be  looked  over  at  intervals  to 
see  what  can  be  put  to  use  or  given  to  another,  but  the  stock  should 
be  kept  low. 

Shop  considerately,  realizing  the  responsibilities  of  the  store  and 
the  trials  of  the  sales  force.  Bills  should  be  paid  promptly. 

American  design  in  textiles  and  clothing  must  be  encouraged. 

Patriotism  in  the  consumer  requires  that  he  take  interest  in 
American-made  products. 

American  dyes  are  increasingly  successful.  The  consumer 
should  recognize  this. 

•  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the   textile   and!  clothing    conditions    of    the    present    in    the 

United  States  that  are  influencing  the  price  of  goods? 

2.  For  what  wastes  in  the  textile)  and  clothing  industries  is  the  consumer 

to  blame? 

3.  What   factors  make  attention  to    dress    important? 

4.  What    world    wide    interests    are    influenced    l>v    clothing? 

5.  What  can    tin-   eitix.cn    do  with    regard    to    dre-    to    improve   industrial 

condition*?      Arti-tie  condition..?      Oo«ta1 

TOPICS   KOK  vrimiKi:  srrnv 

1.  Review  the  agricultural,   industrial   and   commercial    undertakings  con- 

nected with  textiles  and   clothing. 

2.  Look  up  the  latest  statistics  on  the    costs    in    the    textile    and    cloth- 

ing   industries. 

3.  Consider  the  plans  already  operative  for   Increasing  thrift    in   clothing 

purchase,    and    state    the    bewt    way    to    make    them    ML  ,  c-,sful    in 
your  community. 


CHAPTER  II 

WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING 

The  Wool  Situation. — "  Woolen "  cloths  and  "  worsted  " 
cloths,  the  two  chief  types  of  cloth  made  of  wool,  are  preeminent  in 
value  for  serviceable  garments.  The  world's  stock  of  shorn  wool  is 
entirely  inadequate,  however,  to  the  demand,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
development  of  economic  methods  of  extending  the  supply  the 
scarcity  of  this  textile  would  make  the  price  prohibitive  for  the 
1,702,520,366,  of  which  1,169,000,000  live  in  climates  where  wool 
garments  are  needed.1  The  world's  wool  production  in  1920  was 
estimated  at  2,965,410,6822  pounds  in  the  grease.  When  this 
wool  is  washed  it  loses  weight,  consequently  three-fourths  of  a 
pound  is  all  that  would  be  available  for  each  individual  if  it 
were  divided  equally.  This  would  allow  but  one  new  woolen 
garment  a  year  and  a  very  small  garment  at  that.  The  reworking 
of  mill  wastes  and  of  woven  cloth  and  combining  them  with 
shorn  wool  has  made  possible  the  general  wearing  of  wool. 

The  total  number  of  sheep  in  various  countries  reported  in  1920 
was  566,235,117,  a  decrease  of  13,687,816  over  1919.  In  addition 
to  the  war  situation,  there  are  economic  reasons  for  the  decrease  in 
that  large  stretches  of  land  in  Australia,  South  America,  and  the 
United  States  once  available  for  pasturage,  are  being  used  for  farm 
lands  and  large  flocks  of  sheep  are  less  frequent  than  in  the  past. 
The  wool  supply  of  the  United  States  is  never  sufficient  for  its 
needs.  As  the  country  increased  in  population  and  wealth  the 
demand  for  wool  clothing  grew  larger.  In  recent  years  before  the 
war  the  import  of  raw  wool  or  cloth  exceeded  the  domestic  produc- 
tion somewhat  as  follows:  Of  all  the  wool  cloth  consumed,  "five- 
eighths  was  imported  from  other  countries  in  wool  or  in  cloth  made 
from  wool.3  Large  importations  of  raw  wool  have  come  from 
Australia,  South  America,  South  Africa,  and  New  Zealand,  and 

1  An  Explanation  and  Defense  of  Shoddy,  Samuel  S.  Dale,  Boston,  Mass. 

2  Annual    Wool    Review,    Jan.,    1921.      National    Association    of'  Wool 
Manufacturers. 

3  Samuel  S.  Dale,  Boston,  Mass.,  Editor  of  "Textiles." 

13 


14  CLOTHING 

small  quantities  from  other  countries.  Before  the  war  the  United 
States  used  normally  about  600,000,000  pounds  of  raw  wool  (in 
grease)  and  it  produced  in  1920,  of  sheared  wool,  259,307,000 
pounds  (in  grease)  and  pulled  wool,  42,900,000  pounds,  a  total  of 
302,207,000  pounds.  During  1918  on  account  of  the  war  the 
United  States  used  750,000,000  pounds  of  wool  (in  grease)  or  two 
and  a  half  times  the  amount  produced. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  ships  it  was  difficult  to  obtain 
abroad  the  extra  amount  of  wool.  There  was  naturally  an  increase 
of  price  for  raw  wool  in  the  wool-growing  states,  which  is  shown 
in  the  following  statement,  that  even  before  we  entered  the  war 
wool  prices  advanced  from  a  rate  per  scoured  pound  of  65  to  67 
cents  in  1915  to  85  to  86  cents  in  1916,  and  $1.50  to  $1.55  in  1917  in 
the  primary  markets  in  American  wool-growing  states,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  and  Ohio.4 

Since  the  war  began  wages  have  further  increased,  and  hours 
of  work  have  become  shorter,  which  add  to  the  price  of  cloth  per 
yard.5  It  seems  likely  that  pre-war  prices  for  cloth  will  not  be 
touched  again  for  some  time  after  the  country  is  on  a  peace  basis. 

Raise  More  Sheep! — The  need  for  a  larger  supply  of  shorn 
wool  annually  has  brought  forward  a  campaign  for  increased 
flocks.  England  has  two  sheep  for  every  five  acres,  but  the  small 
farmers  in  the  United  States  have  largely  given  up  sheep  growing, 
consequently,  east  of  the  far  western  ranches,  there  is  only  one 
sheep  for  31.8  acres.  If  the  farmers  would  raise  more  sheep  there 
would  be  ample  wool  for  the  requirements  of  the  country. 

There  is  need  of  both  mutton  and  wool,  and  almost  every  farmer 
could  afford  to  keep  a  few  sheep,  even  though  feed  is  scarce  and 
labor  high.  The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  is  endeavoring 

'Annual  Wool  Review,  1917,  National  Association  of  Wool  Manu- 
facturers. 

•Some  changes  in  the  wholesale  prices  from  1914  to  1919  for  some  vari- 
eties of  worsteds  are  as  follo\\ 

Fall  Fall  Fall  Fall         Fall  Fall 

1914  1915  1916  1917         1918  1919 

Washington  Standard 

Clays      $1.37i/2  $1.551/2  $1.82%  $2.37%  $4.15  $3.50 

rn finished  Worsteds    ...      1.60  1.72%  2.17%     2.75%     4.97%     3.72% 

Serges    1.25  1.42%  1.77%     2.25         3.70         3.15 


WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING  15 

to  interest  the  farmers  in  this  matter.  The  raising  of  sheep  is  pos- 
sible on  most  farms,  and  is  proving  to  be  an  advantage  to  the  land. 
Some  states  are  doing  much  to  increase  their  flocks.  Laws  are 
being  enacted  to  protect  the  sheep  from  the  ravages  of  dogs  and 
predatory  animals;  breeding  centers  are  being  established  to  stimu- 
late wool  growing,  and  better  methods  of  marketing  are  being  con- 
sidered. In  the  rural  districts  sheep  clubs  for  both  boys  and  girls 
have  started  and  promise  assistance.  The  President  of  the  United 
States  had  a  flock  of  sheep  on  the  White  House  lawn,  and  in  1918 
had  90  pounds  of  wool  which  was  sold  for  the  Red  Cross.  The  cam- 
paign brought  results  for  there  was  a  gain  for  a  couple  of  years  in 
the  number  of  sheep  in  the  country  (48,866,000,)  but  the  estimates 
for  1920  and  1921  show  decided  decreases  of  more  than  three 
million  sheep  (45,067,000). 8 

Wool  and  the  Sheep. — There  are  many  varieties  of  wool  and 
hair-bearing  animals  which  offer  different  grades  of  stock,  from  the 
short,  soft,  crimpy,  dull,  serrated  wool  from  y2  to  %y%  inches  in 
length,  to  the  long,  silky  fleece  of  the  Angora  goat,  which  is  about 
10  inches  or  more  in  length.  England  has  been  justly  noted  for 
worsted  suitings  made  from  the  wool  of  long-haired  sheep,  such  as 
the  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Romney  Marsh  (Fig.  1).  Other  varie- 
ties of  moderately  long-haired  sheep  are  also  used  in  the  English 
industry,  being  noted  for  their  flesh  as  well  as  for  their  wool. 
France  offers  cloth  of  the  finest  combed  wool  made  from  fleeces  of 
the  Rambouillet  sheep — a  variety  of  the  Merino  (Fig.  2).  The 
wool  of  the  latter  is  adapted  to  the  making  of  cloth  of  the  finest 
quality,  such  as  billiard  and  broadcloths.  The  cross-bred  sheep, 
secured  by  crossing  the  short-haired  Merino  with  a  long-haired 
breed,  has  a  soft,  strong  fiber  longer  than  the  Merino  and  very 
desirable  for  army  service  and  for  enduring  civilian  cloth.  The 
number  of  the  cross-bred  sheep  in  the  United  States  is  increasing, 
as  the  flesh  can  be  used  for  mutton  and  the  wool  for  cloth.  The 
United  States  has  also  flocks  of  Angora  sheep.  The  wool  of  cross- 
bred sheep  of  one-quarter  to  three-eighths  Merino  blood — that  is, 
of  one-quarter  Merino  blood  and  three-quarters  of  the  long-staple 
breed,  up  to  three-eighths  Merino  and  five-eighths  long-haired — is 
used  for  military  purposes.  The  one-half  blood  wool  has  been  con- 
sidered too  fine  for  uniforms,  but  is  used  for  the  olive  drab  shirt- 

*  Annual  Wool  Review,  1921.     National  Asso.  of  Wool  Manufacturers. 


16 


CLOTHING 


Fia.  1. — Lincoln  shearing  ewes  in  full  fleece. 


Fia.  2.— M 


WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING  17 

ings.  Extreme  demand  upon  wool  supplies  must  follow  the  war, 
for  large  amounts  have  been  destroyed,  there  has  been  need  to  cloth 
the  millions  of  returning  soldiers  in  civilian  dress,  and  civilians 
themselves  must  make  large  replacements  for  clothing  giving  longer 
service  than  usual  as  a  part  of  war  economy. 

Wool  By-Products. — The  use  of  wool  by-products  to  increase 
the  supply  of  shorn  wool  has  been  growing  in  importance  for  more 
than  half  a  century.  The  business  in  these  wastes  has  become  a 
great  industry,  and  the  output  is  an  important  factor  in  lengthening 
the  wool  supply  and  providing  good  but  less  expensive  cloth.  They 
consist  of  soft  wastes  which  come  from  wool  in  the  various  prepara- 
tory processes,  and  hard  wastes  from  defective  woolen  anji  worsted 
yarn,  clips  from  the  making  of  new  garments  and  old  rags  collected 
by  junkmen  (Fig.  3).  When  cotton  has  been  combined  with 
wool  in  yarn,  it  is  carbonized  out,  and  the  recovered  wool  is 
known  as  "extract/'  The  ragman  collects  the  old  pieces  or  gar- 
ments and  sells  them  to  the  junkman,  who  deals  directly  with 
the  mills.  If  it  were  not  for  the  use  of  these  reclaimed  wools 
or  shoddies,  there  would  be  a  shortage  of  warm,  enduring, 
moderate-priced  cloth  needed  by  the  majority  of  the  people  living 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.  There  has  been  an 
unjustified  prejudice  against  use  of  these  regenerated  fibers,  aris- 
ing from  lack  of  knowledge  of  their  true  value — that  the  prod- 
uct is  all  wool,  possibly  of  a  choice  variety,  and  that  its  use  is 
entirely  sanitary.  They  originally  come  from  the  sheep,  and  as  is 
the  case  with  shorn  wool,  may  be  either  of  the  highest  value  or  poor 
and  weak,  according  to  the  kind  of  sheep,  its  life  history  before  it 
was  shorn,  or  the  length  and  sort  of  wear  to  which  the  cloth  has 
been  subjected.  Tn  many  instances,  a  cloth  made  entirely  of  re- 
worked wool  may  give  better  service  than  one  made  of  weak  virgin 
wool.  The  processes  through  which  the  material  goes  to  reduce 
it  to  fiber  again  sterilize  it  as  thoroughly,  if  not  more  so,  than  is 
the  case  with  the  shorn  wool  which  is  scoured  only.  The  terms 
"reclaimed,"  "regenerated,"  "reworked,"  and  "shoddy"  are  all 
used  to  indicate  the  reduction  of  manufactured  wool  into  a  fibrous 
state  again.  The  preference  is  for  the  other  terms  in  place  of  the 
word  "shoddy."  The  product  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  what  is 
called  the  carded  wool  industry,  for  the  short  reclaimed  fibers  com- 
2 


18 


CLOTHING 


as 

•E.C 

l 


11 

£   « 


3  & 

11 


a  . 
oao 


WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING  19 

bine  well  with  short  wools.  Shoddy  or  reclaimed  wool  is  seldom 
used  by  itself,  but  is  combined  with  shorn  wool  and  also  with 
cotton.  Factories  usually  consume  their  own  soft  wastes  by  run- 
ning them  back  again  into  the  various  machines  with  the  new  wool. 
Cloths  both  old  and  new  are  reduced  to  a  fibrous  condition  by  the 
shoddy  picker,  and  waste  yarns  are  passed  through  the  garnet 
machine  which  is  similar  to  the  picker.  The  resulting  fiber  is  usu- 
ally very  short,  but  by  moving  these  machines  slowly  the  fiber  has 
greater  length. 

It  is  important  that  all  woolen  or  worsted  rags  shall  find  their 
way  to  the  shoddy  mills.  During  the  war  clips  from  the  military 
olive  drab  cloth  were  reduced  to  fiber  and  combined  with  shorn 
wool  in  yarn  which  was  used  in  uniforms.  The  government  allowed 
35  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  of  reworked  wool  in  cloth  for  the  sol- 
dier. Merchant  tailor  clips  and  clips  from  women's  clothing  are 
regularly  employed  in  cloth  making.  Old  rags,  if  they  are  in  good 
condition,  are  also  used  in  cloth,  but  the  poorest,  after  they  have 
been  ground  up,  are  utilized  in  felt  paper  or  for  other  purposes. 

The  process  of  dealing  with  old  clothes  by  the  junkman  is  about 
as  follows:  If  a  fairly  good  old  cheviot  coat  is  brought  in,  it 
would  be  first  stripped  of  its  lining  and  all  of  the  threads  used  in 
sewing  it  together  would  be  removed — it  would  then  be  in  a  well 
torn-up  condition.  Second,  the  pieces  would  be  laid  on  a  pile  of 
similar  color,  condition,  and  grade,  and  third,  the  collection  would 
be  sold  to  the  mills.  These  rags  are  carbonized  to  remove  all  cotton 
or  vegetable  matter,  either  by  a  destructive  gas  or  by  soaking  them 
in  sulphuric  acid  and  drying  at  a  high  temperature.  This  converts 
the  vegetable  matter  into  carbon,  which  is  removed  by  subsequent 
processes.  The  rags  are  now  ready  for  the  shoddy  picker.  The 
picker  consists  of  two  rollers  between  which  the  rags  are  held  as 
they  pass  to  a  cylinder  covered  with  coarse  teeth  or  spikes  which 
ravels  out  the  yarn  of  the  cloth,  thus  reducing  it  to  fiber  again. 
The  strength  of  the  wool  is  a  little  reduced  by  the  process  and  it 
does  not  take  dye  as  well.  A  good  reworked  wool  combined  with 
shorn  wool  makes  an  excellent  yarn,  and  no  one  should  feel  that 
it  is  a  sacrifice  to  be  asked  to  wear  woolen  clothing  made  of  good 
varieties  of  wool  by-products.  The  fact  is  often  overlooked  that  the 
preparation  of  the  yarn  and  the  manner  of  weaving  it  into  cloth 


20 


CLOTHING 


and  finishing  it   are   as  important   in   the   final   strength   as   the 
nnv  material. 

Representative  Materials. — Carded  wools  (woolens)  :  Broad- 
cloths, billiard  cloths,  doeskin,  melton,  kersey,  Thibet,  covert, 
cheviot,  frieze,  Mackinaw,  cassimere,  Venetian,  Zibeline,  uniform 
cloth  (dark  blue  and  olive  drab),  faced  flannel,  beaver,  chinchilla, 
velour,  bolivia,  silvertone,  duvet  de  laine,  polo  cloth,  tweeds,  home- 
spun, velvet  ratine,  wool  Jersey,  Bannockburn. 

Combed  wools  (worsteds)  :  Serge,  diagonals,  suitings,  Panama, 
gabardine,  tricotine,  basket  cloth,  diagonal  cheviot,  plaid,  shep- 
herd's plaid,  coating,  skirting,  crepe, 
poplin,  voile,  nun's  veiling,  bunting, 
challie,  shoe  tops,  grenadine,  Bed- 
ford cord,  etamine  serge,  flannel, 
pin  stripes,  cravenette,  whip  cord, 
corkscrew. 

Cotton  warp :  Silician,  brilliantine, 
Alpaca,  mohair. 

Cotton  and  silk :    Duvetyn,   flannel, 
poplin,  Henrietta,  Lansdowne,  gloria. 

Carded  or  combed :  Flannel,  covert, 
cheviot,  sweater  yarn,  ratine,  Jersey 
cloth,  Bannockburn. 
The  Industry  in  Woolens  and  Worsteds. — Shorn  wool,  pulled 
wool,  waste  wool,  cloth,  new  and  old,  reduced  to  fiber,  and 
combinations  of  wool  with  other  textiles  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth.  There  are  many  branches  of  the  industry,  such  as 
woolens  or  carded  wools,  worsteds  or  combed  wools,  knitted  goods, 
I't-lt  and  union  <joods. 

Carded  wool  yarns  are  used  in  such  fabrics  as  homespuns,  tweeds, 
broadcloths,  meltons,  and  kerseys  (Fig.  I).  Short-fihered  wool, 
Mich  as  is  found  on  the  Merino  sheep,  is  used  for  making  carded 
wool  fabrics.  The  fibers  are  full  of  scales  or  serrations  which  draw 
up  or  shrink  when  phiced  in  warm  water.  Moisture,  heat  and 
rubbing  add  to  this  tendency.  This  felting  quality  is  greater  in 
some  wools,  and  is  utilized  in  the  making  of  broadcloths  and  other 
;T<.<M!S  which  have  a  soft,  felt-like  surface.  Carded  wool  yarn  is 


A  B 

Fio.  4. — A,  woolen  yarn;  B,  worsted 
yarn. 


WOOLKN   AXD  WORSTED  CLOTHING  21 

prepared  by  being  passed  over  rollers  covered  with  fine  teeth  (card 
clothing)  which  open  and  clean  the  fiber;  these  machines  are  called 
cards  or  the  carding  engines.  The  result  is  a  roving  which  is  spun 
on  the  mule  frame  into  a  soft  yarn  with  the  fibers  in  more  or  less 
irregular  order,  the  little  ends  pushing  out  in  all  directions,  for  thus 
they  will  shrink  more  readily.  Even  if  the  cloth  is  not  to  be 
shrunk  (milled  or  fulled)  the  soft,  rough,  napped  surface  is  warm 
and  attractive.  The  weave  in  carded  wool  is  usually  indistinct  or 
obliterated  entirely.  The  making  of  the  raw  wool  into  carded  yarn 
is  less  expensive  than  is  combed  wool  yarn,  for  there  are  fewer  proc- 
esses. It  is  the  finishing  of  face  cloths,  such  as  broadcloths  and 
kerseys,  which  are  made  from  carded  yarn,  that  takes  time  and  makes 
the  expense  high. 

Fine  broadcloth  and  billiard  cloth  are  made  from  Merino  or 
other  serrated  wool.  They  are  manufactured  more  extensively  in 
Europe  than  in  America,  Austria  having  sent  much  to  the  United 
States  before  the  war.  Good  qualities  of  broadcloth,  however,  are 
made  here.  The  cloth  is  woven  very  wide,  perhaps  80  inches,  then 
sewed  together  by  joining  the  selvedges  with  the  right  side  turned  in. 
To  shrink  or  full  it,  it  is  wet  with  warm  soapy  water  and  placed  in  a 
large  cabinet,  where  it  passes  over  rollers  twisted  to  increase  the 
felting.  It  is  removed  from  the  cabinet  when  it  has  reached  the  thick- 
ened condition  desired  and  the  necessary  width — about  54  inches.  In 
order  to  increase  the  solidity  of  the  cloth  without  adding  greatly  to 
the  expense,  fine  cuttings  of  wool,  called  flocks,  from  the  napping  ma- 
chine, are  felted  into  the  back  of  the  cloth  in  the  fulling  cabinet. 
When  the  flocks  are  from  the  finest  virgin  wool  they  felt  closely  and 
wear  well,  but  when  from  reworked  wool  are  less  satisfactory.  These 
fine  clips  can  be  seen  in  the  seams  or  in  the  hem  of  a  skirt  after  it 
has  been  worn  for  a  time,  resembling  hair-like  dust.  After  the 
cloth  is  fulled  sufficiently  it  is  taken  from  the  cabinet  and  washed 
and  dried.  Gigging  or  napping  follows,  the  surface  of  the  cloth 
being  raised  with  vegetable  teazles,  laid  in  slots  placed  on  a  cylinder 
which  revolves,  bringing  the  teazle  in  contact  with  the  cloth.  Wire 
would  tear  the  fine  surface,  and  it  is  only  employed  with  inferior 
varieties  of  face  goods.  Both  wet  and  dry  napping  are  used.  After 
the  nap  is  raised  the  surface  is  sheared  off  with  circular  knives 
placed  on  a  cylinder  which  looks  much  like  a  lawn  mower.  The 


22  CLOTHING 

finishing  processes  are  usually  steam  lustering,  brushing  and  press- 
ing, and  the  result  is  a  smooth  cloth  with  a  satiny  luster  when  the 
wool  is  good ;  or  with  poor  fabrics  a  special  treatment  can  be  given 
to  obtain  a  surface  luster  which  is,  however,  less  enduring  than  the 
natural  one.  The  best  "  face  cloths  "  do  not  wear  rough  but  pre- 
serve their  finish.  If  the  broadcloth  is  made  too  thin,  as  is  the  case 
with  some  varieties  of  women's  cloth,  it  will  slit  easily,  for  the 
surface  is  weak. 

Various  mixtures  of  shorn  wools,  or  of  the  latter  with  wastes, 
shoddies,  and  cotton,  blended  as  the  result  of  experience  in  the 
mills,  are  used  for  making  carded  wool  yarns.  These  formulas 
are  guarded  carefully,  each  mill  having  its  awn.  Goo'd  woolen 
cloths  wear  well  and  face  cloths  are  enduring  if  not  too  thin;  but 
even  in  some  highly  priced  broadcloths  the  effect  of  a  soft,  thin, 
graceful  fabric  is  secured  at  the  expense  of  its  strength. 

Combed  wool  (Fig.  4B)  or  worsted  yarn  is  made  into  such  cloths 
as  serges,  worsted  suitings,  bunting,  henricttas,  and  challies,  and 
into  carpet  and  knitting  yarns.  A  long  staple  hair-like  wool  is  used 
for  many  of  the  worsteds,  such  as  the  English  diagonals,  but  shorter 
wools  are  also  combed,  France  making  a  specialty  of  these  fabrics. 
The  fibers  are  carded  first  and  then  combed  carefully  before  they 
are  twisted  into  yarn,  Worsted  suitings  when  taken  from  the  loom 
look  much  as  they  will  when  finished.  Generally,  the  weave  is 
distinct,  but  is  also  softened  by  fulling  and  napping.  Shoddies 
and  hard  wastes  are  not  used  in  worsted  yarn,  a,s  the  long  staple 
wool  cannot  have  shorter  wool  combed  into  it.  A  cotton  yarn  can 
have  worsted  twisted  about  it  and  a  sliver  of  cotton  may  be  com- 
bined with  a  sliver  of  worstcil  and  then  twisted  into  yarn,  but  this 
is  not  so  common  as  a  combination  of  cotton  with  worsted  in  the 
weaving,  as  in  alpaca,  mohair,  and  brilliant  inc.  wlu'rertlfe  warp  is 
cotton.  In  general,  a  good  quality  of  wool  is  used  in  worsteds. 
The  quality  of  the  raw  stock  used  and  the  expense  of  making 
combed  yarn  cause  high  prices  in  many  of  the  cloths  made  of 
this  yarn. 

If  cared  for  and  of  a  good  quality,  worsteds  will  last  for  years. 
On  account  of  the  <-lo-c  twisting  of  the  yarn  and  the  distinct  weave 
the  cloth  will  sometimes  become  shiny  in  places  when-  friction 
occurs.  When  this  shine  is  the  wearing  off  of  the  surface  il  can 


WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING  23 

often  be  remedied  by  dampening  the  place  and  rubbing  it  gently 
with  a  piece  of  rough  cloth  or  of  very  fine  sandpaper.  Unfinished 
worsteds  which  have  a  soft  napped  surface  like  a  woolen,  are  apt 
to  lose  this  pile  in  places  where  the  cloth  is  being  constantly  rubbed 
and  thus  to  show  the  weave  too  distinctly.  With  care  the  pile  can 
be  again  raised  as  mentioned  above.  It  is  well  to  press  the  material 
on  the  wrong  side  after  the  treatment  in  order  to  dry  the  cloth 
evenly.  Shine  sometimes  is  caused  by  oil  from  the  hands  and  can 
be  removed  by  washing  the  cloth  with  warm  water  and  soap,  and, 
if  necessary,  a  little  ammonia  can  be  added.  The  cloth  can  be 
rubbed  gently  to  raise  the  surface.  (See  Chapter  XI,  section  "  Care 
of  Clothing  as  a  Part  of  National  Thrift.")  Heavy  pile  goods  such 
as  plushes  are  generally  made  with  worsted  yarns  on  the  face.  A 
worsted  filling  is  sometimes  used  in  broadcloth,  but  the  warp  face 
is  carded  wool.  Wool  crepe,  Panama,  and  Bedford  cord  are  ex- 
amples of  worsteds  made  of  the  shorter,  softer,  and  less  hair- 
like  wools. 

Many  fancy  effects  are  obtained  by  the  way  woolen  or  worsted 
yarns  are  twisted  or  by  the  sort  of  weave.  The  finishes  and  dress- 
ings used  to  give  cloth  a  fine  surface  are  factors  in  the  final  appear- 
ance. For  substantial  wear,  however,  the  plain  weave  or  the  various 
twills,  the  dark  solid  colors  or  black  and  white  mixtures,  give  the 
greatest  satisfaction. 

Knit  Goods. — Hand-knitting  yarns  are  often  a  combed  product 
and  vast  amounts  were  used  during  the  war  in  the  making  by  hand 
of  sweaters,  socks,  and  other  articles  for  the  Army  and  Navy.  These 
g-arments  are  also  made  by  machine  and  the  United  States  is  turn- 
ing out  an  excellent  class  of  goods.  Knit  goods  are  growing  in 
favor,  and  the  newer  machinery  gives  a  result  as  good  as  that  of  a 
trained  hand.  Both  carded  and  combed  yarns  are  used  and  cotton 
is  found  in  combinations.  The  employment  of  the  carded  yarn  and 
cotton  makes  it  possible  to  provide  sweaters,  cardigan  jackets,  under- 
wear, and  hosiery  at  a  reasonable  price.  Combed  wool  knit  goods, 
and  Jersey  cloth  are  high  in  price.  Knitted  wool  underwear  when 
combined  with  cotton  is  more  hygienic  in  contact  with  the  body 
than  if  made  of  all  wool  and  is  more  easily  laundered.  (See  Chap- 
ter VII,  section  "The  Part  Textiles  Play.") 

Union  goods  are  made  of  wool  and  cotton,  wool  and  linen,  and 


24  CLOTHING 

wool  and  silk.  Cotton  warps  with  wool  filling  are  used  in  alpacas, 
mohairs,  Silicians,  brilliantines,  and  other  goods.  These  give  ex- 
cellent wear  and  can  be  procured  at  average  prices.  Serges  are 
sometimes  made  with  cotton  warps  to  lower  the  price.  Shepherd 
plaids  are  made  of  all  wool  and  are  also  made  available  to  all 
classes  by  having  cotton  inserted  at  regular  intervals  in  the  goods — 
it  may  be  a  black  and  white  plaid  in  which  all  the  black  is  cotton 
and  the  white  wool,  or  a  few  cotton  threads  may  be  inserted  in 
certain  blacks  only.  Pin  stripes  are  also  lowered  in  price  by  having 
the  stripes  of  cotton,  and  many  other  goods  are  thus  cheapened,  but 
not  injured  in  the  wear  or  appearance.  It  is  true,  however,  that  if 
the  cotton  is  used  to  a  very  large  proportion,  the  conditions  inher- 
ent in  wool  fabrics  are  changed  and  those  of  cotton  take  the  place. 
For  instance,  a  shepherd's  plaid  with  a  large  amount  of  cotton  will, 
after  a  time,  have  a  cockled  look  as  the  damp  air  affects  the  cotton 
and  wool  differently,  and  constant  pressing  may  be  necessary  to 
keep  the  garment  looking  well,  or  it  will  soil  easily  and  must  be 
carefully  watched  for  spots  and  laundered  frequently.  As  cotton 
does  not  hold  the  dye  well,  it  is  advisable  to  buy  union  goods  of 
wool  and  cotton  in  colors  which  do  not  fade  readily.  Silk  com- 
bined with  wool,  as  in  a  silk  and  wool  poplin,  may  make  an  excel- 
lent though  expensive  cloth.  The  cord  of  the  poplin  is  made  of 
worsted  and  the  silk  warp  crosses  it,  but  if  the  silk  is  too  weak  and 
thin,  the  material  will  wear  out  quickly.  Wool  poplins  are  often 
made  with  a  cotton  cord,  and  heavy  coatings,  such  as  chinchilla, 
have  frequently  much  cotton  in  their  construction. 

Felt  is  manufactured  by  carding  short  wool  fibers  into  wide 
sheets  and  placing  one  on  top  of  another  until  the  requisite  thick- 
ness is  reached;  the  mass  is  then  wound  on  a  roller  and  submerged 
in  warm  water  and  steam,  while  the  roller  movefl  from  side  to  side 
and  increases  the  felting.  At  present,  much  of  the  so-called  felt  is 
really  a  woven  cloth  which  is  felted  or  shrunk  after  weaving.  Horse 
blankets  of  the  cheaper  kind  are  made  by  placing  sh"ets  of  carded 
wool  on  either  side  of  a  coarse  cloth,  such  as  burlap,  and  subjecting 
the  layers  to  thousands  of  needles,  which  push  the  wool  through  the 
burlap,  thus  making  a  solid  mass.  The  soft  attractive  surface  is 
given  in  the  finishing  processes. 

Properties  of  Wool. — The  properties  of  wool    fit    it    prcemi- 


WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  CLOTHING  25 

nently  for  outer  wear.  It  is  enduring,  keeps  its  shape  well,  holds 
the  dye,  does  not  have  to  be  frequently  laundered  or  cleansed,  and 
is  not  heavy  unless  woven  into  a  thick,  solid  cloth,  or  is  wet 
(wool  can  hold  large  quantities  of  water  in  its  meshes,  even  to  30 
per  cent,  or  50  per  cent.).  It  holds  moisture  at  the  temperature  of 
the  body,  consequently  does  not  feel  cold,  even  if  it  is  wet,  unless 
the  garment  is  next  to  the  skin  and  the  wearer  is  in  a  draught.  It 
holds  air  in  its  elastic  fibers,  which  makes  it  feel  warm;  loosely 
woven  cloths  have  this  quality  especially.  It  can  also  be  so  woven 
that  the  cold  outer  air  is  excluded.  For  wear  as  underclothing,  it 
is  far  from  ideal,  although  it  feels  comfortable,  for  it  becomes 
felted  into  a  mass  when  damp  and  subjected  to  friction,  and  when 
shrunk  does  not  give  sufficient  ventilation  to  the  body  nor  allow  for 
free  movement.  On  account  of  its  tendency  to  shrink,  it  requires 
more  care  in  the  washing  than  is  given  in  the  ordinary  laundry. 
The  impurities  which  have  been  absorbed  from  the  body  are  not 
apt  to  be  washed  out,  and  germ  life  grows  more  rapidly  on  wool 
than  on  other  textiles.  Carded  wool  shrinks  more  easily  ^han 
combed  wool.  While  it  is  less  hygienic  than  other  textiles  next  to 
the  body,  this  can  be  minimized  by  combining  the  wool  with  cotton, 
silk,  or  linen.  Careful  home  washing  will  also  help  to  keep  it  clean 
and  pliable.  (See  Chapter  VII,  section  "  The  Part  Textiles  Play," 
and  Chapter  XII,  section  "Home  Laundering.") 

Suggestions. — The  family  buyer  should  train  her  hand  as  far 
as  possible  to  know  whether  or  not  a  cloth  made  of  wool  is  a  good 
fabric.  If  she  learns  to  recognize  the  feel  of  the  best  wool,  she  will 
the  easier  note  the  change  when  poorer  stock  or  when  cotton  is 
present.  It  is  impossible,  however,  under  ordinary  tests  to  recog- 
nize how  much  shoddy  is  combined  with  shorn  wool.  Even  chemi- 
cal tests  will  not  determine,  as  both  give  the  reaction  of  wool.  Sur- 
face finishes  may  feel  deceptive,  but  the  eye  or  hand  can  often  detect 
them.  The  strength  of  the  yarn  should  be  noted  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  fabric.  The  weave,  too,  is  important.  Tak- 
ing an  all-wool  cloth  and  a  cotton  and  wool  one  of  the  same  style 
and  consistency,  the  latter  will  be  heavier,  for  cotton  has  more 
specific  gravity  than  wool.  When  a  large  percentage  of  cotton  is  in 
a  fabric,  the  wiry,  elastic  quality  of  wool  gives  way  to  the  softer  and 
more  yielding  feel  of  cotton.  This  is  very  noticeable  in  blankets,  as 


26  CLOTHING 

an  increasing  amount  of  cotton  is  added.  An  all-wool  blanket  of 
the  finest  kind  is  high  in  price.  As  cotton  is  added,  the  price  is 
lowered  and  the  qualities  are  changed.  (See  Chapter  III,  latter 
part  of  section  "  The  Industry.") 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  present  demand  for  and  supply  of  wool? 

2.  What  are  the  wool  by-products,  and  how  are  they  prepared  for  spinning? 

3.  What  are  representative  materials  made  of  wool  and  their  values? 

4.  Compare  the  carding  and  the  combing  industries  in  methods  and  results. 

5.  What  are  the  properties  of  wool  in  relation  to  its  service  for  outer  and 

under  clothing? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  status  of  wool  raising  and  manufacture  In  the  principal 

countries  of  the  world,  and  where  are  the  leading  wool  markets? 

2.  Trace  the  preparatory  and  manufacturing  processes  in  wool  from  the 

fleece  to  the  finished  cloth. 

3.  In  what  ways  was  the  wool  industry  of  the  world  affected  by  the  war? 

What  did  the  United  States  learn  from  the  conditions  experienced  ? 


CHAPTEE  III 
COTTON  CLOTHING 

The  Cotton  Situation.— The  United  States  is  the  cotton- 
growing  country  of  the  world,  producing,  it  is  said,  about  60  per 
cent,  of  the  supply,  varying  in  different  years  according  to  the  size 
of  the  crop.  The  importance  of  cotton  as  a  textile  is  little  realized. 
It  is  used  by  everyone,  the  poorest  and  the  richest.  It  will  keep 
indefinitely  without  appreciable  deterioration  which  fact  adds  to  its 
value.  Many  households  take  advantage  of  this  by  buying  large 
stores  of  household  materials  and  bedding  to  use  when  needed.  Cot- 
ton cloth  is  woven  in  the  gray  (undyed)  and  kept  in  warehouses  in 
huge  quantities  until  needed  or  until  higher  prices  can  be  obtained. 

Cotton  is  vital  to  industry,  no  other  crop  is  so  influential  in 
business  affairs ;  with  the  exception  of  foodstuffs  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  product.  Shortly  before  the  war  it  ranked  first 
in  value  of  all  commodities  in  international  trade,  amounting  to 
$1,127,000,000,  with  wheat  second,  valued  at  $774,000,000^  °  In 
19,^0  cotton,  including  its  by-products,  brought  to  the  cotton  rais- 
ing section  of  the  United  States  in  one  season  $2,513,000,000.  The 
spinning  of  cotton  has  increased  20  per  cent,  in 'ten  years.  Europe 
manufactures  more  cotton  cloth  than  the  United  States,  but  the 
latter  country  is  increasing  its  output.  In  1911-1912  it  used  33 
per  cent,  of  its  own  crop,  but  by  1917-1918  it  consumed  58  per 
cent.  The  United  States  is  less  productive  per  acre  than  Egypt, 
for  it  averages  less  than  200  pounds  of  lint  where  the  latter  coun- 
try has  450  pounds.  The  record  of  India  is  less  than  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  weight  of  the  United  States  bale  is  about  500 
pounds.  It  is  often  carelessly  baled  and  handled  which  brings 
much  complaint  from  foreign  countries  importing  it. 

In  spite  of  the  large  available  supply  of  cotton  in  this  country 

1  World  Conditions  in  the  Cotton  Industry,  by  William  Whittam.  Ar- 
rangements Committee  of  World  Cotton  Conference,  1919. 


27 


28  CLOTHING 

the  great  demand  upon  it  during  the  war,  from  Europe  as  well  as 
here,  raised  the  price  of  manufactured  goods  until  in  some  grades 
they  were  almost  prohibitive  for  the  average  citizen.  This  was 
hard  upon  those  in  very  limited  circumstances  who  rely  on  cheaper 
fabrics  almost  exclusively.  Many  conditions  united  to  bring  about 
the  abnormal  height  of  prices  in  the  United  States.  The  crop  of 
1917-1918  was  smaller  than  in  former  years  for  the  acreage  was 
decreased  8.7  per  cent,  and  in  1920-1921,  with  the  acreage  reduced 
almost  one  quarter,  the  crop  is  estimated  at  less  than  8,340,000 
bales,  exclusive  of  linters,  much  less  than  the  usual  yield.  .Many 
countries  are  dependent  upon  the  American  crop  to  supply  their 
factories,  especially  for  the  finer  class  of  goods.  The  United  States- 
alone  requires  about  6,200,000  bales  of  lint  cotton  and  342,000  bales 
of  linters,  the  United  Kingdom  takes  from  us  annually  3,700,000 
bales  and  the  Continent  of  Europe  3,660,000  with  other  countries 
desiring  about  4,000,000  bales  more.  The  short  crop  is,  there- 
fore, a  disaster  for  the  world.  It  has  been  the  result  of  various 
conditions  such  as  the  reduced  acreage  (the  South  has  found 
with  high  wages  and  scarce  labor  it  is  impossible  to  grow  cotton 
to  advantage  unless  the  price  per  pound  is  higher)  ;  the  terrible 
ravages  of  the  boll  weevil,  and  the  bad  weather  when  the  crop  was 
growing.  The  fluctuations  in  price  of  standard  cotton  (Middling 
Upland)  have  been  severe  during  the  past  years,  running  from 
7  to  10  cents  a  pound  in  1914,  rising  to  a  peak  price  in  1920  of 
43.75  cents  and  then  declining  to  10.85  cents  by  June  1921.  The 
latter  part  of  1920  and  early  part  of  1921  was  a  time  of  great 
depression  in  the  Cotton  Industry  for  not  only  the  growers  but 
the  manufacturers  also.  The  market  was  inactive,  imports  and 
exports  declined,  factories  were  closed  or  running  on  reduced  time, 
and  millions  of  spindles,  amounting  to  one-fourth  of  the  entire 
industry  had  stopped.  Conditions  have  improved  greatly  and  by 
October  1921  the  mills  of  the  United  States  wore  running  !M)  per 
cent,  of  normal.  The  prices  of  raw  cotton,  staple  yarns  and  fabrics 
were  more  stable.  Manufactured  goods  must  still  he  higher  in  pri<  •«• 
than  before  the  war  for  wages  are  almost  double,  the  hours  of 
labor  are  about  11  per  cent,  less  and  taxes  have  in< -re;i~. -d. 

•Monthly  Statistical  Summary  of  the  Cotton  Industry,  The  Merchants 
National  Bank  of  Boston,  October  1921. 


COTTON  CLOTHING 


29 


The  total  world  output  of  cotton  piece  goods  has  been  estimated 
at  7,816,500,000  pounds3  of  which  the  United  States  produces 
1,900,000,000,  exports  99,000,000  and  imports  11,000,000.  It 
imports  also  about  417,000  bales  of  foreign  cotton  which  are  needed 
in  special  industries,  the  largest  amount  coming  from  Egypt,  but 
Mexico,  the  United  Kingdom  and  China  also  send  us  supplies.  The 
United  States  consumes  95  per  cent,  of  her  production. 

The  following  tables  are  indicative  of  the  effect  of  war  con- 
ditions on  the  prices  of  representative  cotton  cloths : 


Prices  of  Staple  Cloths  in  the  United  States  * 


Date 

Print  cloths 
28'' 
64X64** 

Brown  sheetings 
4  yards 
56  X60** 

Standard 
ginghams 

Per  yard 

Per  yard 

Per  yard 

November  1, 

S0.18H 

$0.2iy2  to  .22 

$0.22^ 

1919 

November  1, 

0.12% 

0.17^ 

0.19^ 

1918 

November  1, 

0.07% 

0.12^  to  .12% 

0.12M 

1917 

November  1, 

0.05% 

0.09 

0.08M 

1916 

November  1, 

0.03^ 

0.05%  to  .06 

0.06% 

1915 

November  1, 

0.03 

0.04H  to  .04% 

0.06% 

1914 

*  From  "The  Monthly  Statistical  Summary  of  the  Cotton  Industry"  compiled  by  The 
Merchants  National  Bank  of  Boston,  Mass. 
**The  count  of  threads  in  warp  and  woof. 

The  gradual  increase  of  prices  during  the  years  1915  to  1919 
was  often  several  hundred  per  cent.,  e.g.,  material  costing  10  cents 
a  yard  rose  to  30  or  40  cents  a  yard.  By  October  15,  1921,  print 
cloths  were  selling  at  $0.07,  brown  sheetings  at  $0.11%,  and 
standard  ginghams  at  $0.14^.  The  following  table  shows  the 
changes  of  cotton  prices  in  representative  cities  within  one  year. 
While  these  prices  are  gradually  going  down,  they  will  be  slow  in 
reaching  former  costs  until  many  problems  of  labor,  transportation, 
low  production,  and  foreign  competition  are  settled: 

*  Cotton  Facts.  1920,  report  of  the  Research  Committee  of  the  National 
Council  of  Cotton  Manufacturers,  Melvin  T.  Copeland,  Sec. 


30 


CLOTHING 


2* 


I 


II 


££ 


II 


II 


S^r<      go     ge^gg 
-HCO<N      co      co<»q<N 


t>- C^        CD        to  »H  O  tO 

,— I  r- I          rH          T-l  Tt<  C^  »H 


t>- t>- i-H         CO         b«C<lt>- 


^^        ^^  *O  *O  O5 
CO        CO  t"*»  O^  CO 


Ot^CN 

i-H  i-H  rH 

i  ' 


O  Oi  O          ^H          O5  < 

r^.  I-H  o      o      Tt<  i 

C^  ^  (N        CO       CO  i 


1 1»  »H  »O  CO  O5  to 
1  to  00  ^H  "f  O  tO 
I  CO  C^  CO  CO  00  CO 


t    g 


111  1  1111 


O 


A 


2  (A 


00  >> 

22 


z$ 


2  » 


15  S? 


i 


OO        C^ 

«O  iO        I-H 

Tti  01      co 


OO 
OO 
CN  Tf 


CO        t^-Ot^- 

I-H        COOO 
CO        C^  CO  CO 


80  1^-  o 

iO  i-H  10 

i-H  i-^  i—  (  i-H 

8  '  '  ' 


C<  CO  O  OJ 

O5t^.  »O  "* 

I-H  co  c^  co 
d 


S§2: 

,-HCO' 

8  ' 


CO  ^^ 


OOCOO  O 

O5  CO  «O  ^f  -^  CO  >-H 

i—  i  co  c^  co  co  oo  »-H  co 
d                          '<N    ' 


CO  i— i        t>-        *&  S  to 


'S'H'H    "H 

03   c3   03         03 


*.c  -be 

mMl 

3    S^^o 


1  Monthly  Labor  Review,  July,  1918,  page  69,  and  October,  1919,  page  OH. 


COTTON  CLOTHING  31 

Women  who  paid  16  cents  per  yard  for  the  best  bleached  sheet- 
ing a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  when  they  were  married,  have  paid 
lately  in  the  neighborhood  of  45  cents  per  yard  for  the  same  kind 
of  sheeting  for  their  daughter's  wedding  outfits. 

A  factor  in  the  price  of  cotton  cloth  is  the  demand  on  raw  stock 
for  the  automobile  industry  which  needs  long  staple  cotton  for 
tires,  both  fabric  and  cord.  It  has  been  said4  that  in  1920  from 
one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  the  world's  entire  production  of  raw  cotton 
would  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tires.  The  heavy  pneumatic 
tires  used  in  trucks  take  each  14  pounds  of  cotton. 

Cotton  Fabrics. — 'Cloth  mode  from  cotton  has  a  wide  range  of 
usefulness.  It  is  employed  for  the  heaviest  service  in  automobile 
tires,  canvas,  and  awning  fabrics,  and  also  for  gossamer  material, 
such  as  lace  and  fine  net.  It  can  be  made  by  treatment  to  look  like 
linen,  silk,  and  wool.  In  its  poorer  qualities,  it  has  sold  for  a  few 
cents  per  yard,  and  in  the  more  elaborate  dress  goods  reaches  sev- 
eral dollars  per  yard.  Standard  materials  are  shown  in  the 
following  list : 

1.  For  Medium-Priced  Dress  Goods. — Gingham,  chambray,  calico,  lawn, 
muslin,  dimity,  crepe,  Indian  head,  flannelette,  percale,  pique",  and  madras. 

2.  For    Undermuslins    or   Dress    Goods. — Seersucker,    nainsook,    lawn, 
organdie,  cambric,  crepe,  batiste,  muslins,  dimity  and  longcloth. 

3.  For  Serviceable  Wear. — Jean,  galatea,  Devonshire,  kindergarten  and, 
endurance  cloths,  drill,  and  khaki. 

4.  For  Warm  Outer  Garments. — Velveteen,  poplin,  gabardine,  rating, 
eponge,  plush,  and  corduroy. 

5.  For    Underwear. — Flannelette,   knitted    goods,   and  hosiery. 

6.  For  Dressy  Wear. — Voile,  marquisette,  challie,  organdie,  grenadine, 
Brussels  net,  lace,  and  mull. 

7.  For  Linings. — Percaline,  sateen,  net,  buckram,  and  silesia. 

8.  For  the  Household. — Awnings,  cretonne,  denim,  huckaback,  towelling, 
sheeting,  mosquito  net,  burlap,  Turkish  towelling,  damask,  curtain  material 
such  as  voile,  ecrim,  and  nearsilk,  and  sewing  threads. 

9.  For  Heavy  Service. — Duck,    canvas,    tires,    ticking,    webbing     and 
drilling. 

10.  Tct  Take  the  Place  of  Silk. — Mercerized  materials,  nearsilk,  pongee, 
velveteen,  sateen,  and  plush. 

11.  To  Take  the  Place  of  Wool. — Tapestry,  cheviot,  chinchilla,  velour, 
gabardine,    covert,    serge,    beaver,    Sponge,    poplin,    ratine,    diagonal,    shep- 
herds plaid,  blankets,  outing  flannel  and  serge  flannel. 

12.  To  Take  the  Place  of  Linen. — Damask,  towelling,  handkerchief  lawn, 
bird's-eye,  flaxon,  linon,  huckaback,  and  santex. 

13.  For  Hospital  Use. — Gauze,   lint,   sheetings,  towelling,   and   absor- 
bent cotton. 

4  Atlantic  Monthly,  November,   1920,  Melvin  T.  Copeland. 


32  CLOTHING 

The  Industry. — Cotton  is  the  fiber  surrounding  the  seeds  of 
certain  plants  of  the  Mallow  family  from  which  come  also  the  holly- 
hock and  the  marshmallow.  It  grows  best  in  warm  climates.  The 
southern  part  of  the  United  States,  Egypt,  and  India  are  especially 
noted  for  their  cotton,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  The 
staple  (length  of  fiber)  runs  from  %  to  %  inch  in  the  Uplands  of 
the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  Alabama;  %  to  1%  inch  in  the  Gulf 
sections  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Georgia;  1%  to  1%  inches 
for  Texas  cotton;  iy2  inches  for  Mississippi  bottom  cotton,  and  up 
to  as  high  as  3  inches  for  Sea  Island  cotton,  which  grows  on  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Florida.  This  latter  cotton  is 
the  finest  in  the  United  States  and  probably  in  the  world,  and  is  in 
demand  for  making  the  highest  class  of  goods  in  Europe  and 
America.  The  crop  is  not  large,  for  out  of  a  total  acreage  in  1918 
of  34,925,000  planted  in  cotton,  but  376,000  acres  were  Sea  Island. 

The  length  of  staple  and  the  quality  of  cotton  are  influenced 
greatly  by  the  seed  used,  the  soil,  the  care,  and  the  conditions  of 
cultivation.  The  Peeler  and  Gulf  (grown  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico) 
are  among  the  best  varieties.  It  has  been  found  that  planting  Sea 
Island  or  other  long-staple  cotton  seeds,  such  as  the  Long  Egyptian, 
in  other  localities  will  frequently  bring  good  results.  This  proce- 
dure leads  to  some  confusion,  however,  for  advertisements  will  often 
state  that  Sea  Island  cotton  has  been  used  in  some  product  when  in 
reality  it  may  be  a  variety  grown  from  that  seed,  but  far  from  the 
sea  where  it  grows  best. 

Noted  cottons  from  other  countries  which  are  used  more  or  less 
in  the  United  States  are  the  Long  Egyptian,  which,  next  to  the  Sea 
Island,  is  perhaps  the  longest  and  best,  and  is  grown  often  from  the 
seeds  of  the  latter.  Some  Egyptian  cottons  are  far  below  the 
grade  of  the  "  Long  "  variety.  Less  than  one-tenth  of  the  world's 
supply  comes  from  Egypt.  India  grows  about  one-third  of  the 
average  crop  and  it  is,  in  general,  a  low-grade  cotton  not  used  to 
any  extent  in  the  United  States.  Peru,  Brazil,  and  a  few  other 
countries  grow  about  a  tenth  more,  which  leaves  six-tenths  for  the 
American  crop.  The  seeds  of  the  Long  Egyptian  cotton  are  being 
planted  in  formerly  arid  sections  of  Arizona  and  California  with 
the  promise  of  future  success.  The  product  is  long-stapled  and 
very  productive.  It  is  called  "  Pima."  Short-stapled  cotton  is 


COTTON  CLOTHING  33 

also  grown  in  these  states.  In  addition  to  the  regular  cotton  fiber 
or  lint  the  soft  down  is  removed  from  seeds  such  as  those  of  the 
Upland  cotton  (the  Sea  Island  seeds  are  without  down),  and  is 
used  for  various  purposes ;  the  fiber  is  called  linters. 

There  are  many  enemies  of  the  cotton  crop  which  yearly  threaten 
its  success.  The  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil  have  been  so  serious 
that  many  counties  in  the  United  States  have  ceased  to  plant  Sea 
Island  cotton,  and  the  acreage  for  other  cotton  has  been  reduced. 
Every  effort  possible  is  being  made  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture to  eradicate  this  scourge  which  threatens  the  entire 
American  crop. 

Cotton  is  picked  by  hand.  Many  machines  have  been  invented 
to  do  this,  but  as  yet  none  has  been  as  satisfactory  as  the*  slower 
method.  After  cotton  is  picked  it  is  ginned  to  separate  the  lint 
from  the  seeds.  There  were  18,810  active  ginneries  in  the  United 
States  in  1919  5.  The  cotton  lint  is  automatically  carried  from  the 
gin  to  the  press  and  baled,  in  which  condition  it  can  be  carried  to 
mills  within  a  radius  of  200  miles.  For  northern  factories  or  for 
export  it  is  re-compressed,  often  at  the  shipping  port,  into  a  smaller 
bale  which  will  pack  into  the  trains  and  boats  better  and  at  smaller 
expense.  The  usual  bale  is  rectangular  and  weighs  about  500 
pounds,  but  there  are  also  circular  bales  for  which  many  advantages 
are  claimed.  The  rectangular  bale  is  partially  covered  with  a 
loose  jute  bagging  which  is  readily  torn,  and  as  it  is  customary  to 
cut  a  piece  from  the  covering  to  sample  the  lint  much  is  lost  from 
the  package  before  it  arrives  at  the  mill.  It  is  also  continually 
exposed  to  the  weather  and  becomes  wet  and  soiled.  The  com- 
plaints of  the  disgraceful  condition  of  our  cotton  bales  are  wide- 
spread and  merited,  and  our  baling  methods  should  be  improved. 

After  the  ginning  the  lint  is  in  the  best  condition  for  spinning, 
but  the  tremendous  pressure  of  the  compress  which  follows  crushes 
the  fiber.  When  the  bale  arrives  at  the  distant  mill  it  must  again 
be  subjected  to  mechanical  processes  to  open  up  the  cotton  as  it  was 
before  baling.  This  tends  to  weaken  it  still  more.  The  seeds  yield 
large  returns,  being  used  for  many  purposes.  The  down  covering 
them  is  removed  and  used  for  low-grade  fabrics  and  for  explosives ; 
the  hulls  make  fuel  and  fertilizers,  and  the  inner  meats  are  crushed 
for  oils,  cottolene,  and  other  lard  substitutes,  and  for  soaps  and 
for  cotton-seed  cake  for  feeding  cattle. 

'Cotton  Facts,   edition    1920,   Shepperson. 
3 


34  CLOTHING 

There  is  every  reason  for  our  cotton  industry  to  expand,  as  the 
world  needs  this  textile.  More  cotton  and  better  cotton  should  be 
our  aim.  The  price  of  raw  cotton  has  been  too  low  in  the  past;  an 
adequate  price  must  be  paid  the  growers.*  At  the  present  time  the 
labor  problems,  the  boll  weevil,  and  the  need  of  a  good  machine 
picker  are  difficulties  to  be  surmounted.  In  order  to  improve  the 
present  wasteful  baling  and  handling  it  is  purposed  to  study  the 
system  for  the  purpose  of  reorganizing  it. 

The  grading  of  cotton  is  very  important,  and  the  buyer  of  the 
raw  stock  has  to  select  carefully,  as  mills  require  special  qualities 
to  gain  the  results  they  wish.  Several  kinds  of  raw  cotton  are  usu- 
ally united  in  one  variety  of  yarn,  and  foreign  cottons  are  imported 
to  assist  in  attaining  desired  effects.  Peruvian  and  Brazilian  cot- 
tons are  rough,  resembling  wool,  and  are  used  when  the  appearance 
of  wool  is  needed.  Egyptian  cotton  is  selected  for  fine  materials 
and  threads,  and  for  mercerizing.  Upland  cotton  is  used  for  print 
goods,  velveteens  and  medium-priced  goods.  Peeler  is  in  demand 
for  fine  dress  goods,  such  as  organdie,  and  for  fabrics  where  silk  is 
alternated.  Gulf  cotton  is  employed  in  fine  lawns  and  ginghams; 
Mobile  cotton  makes  drilling,  sheeting  and  duck;  Pima  cotton  is 
said  to  be  equal  to  Sea  Island  cotton  for  bleaching,  dyeing,  and 
mercerization,  and  has  been  used  for  tires  and  aeroplane  fabrics: 
and  Sea  Island  is  used  in  sewing  threads,  fine  dress  goods,  and 
laces,  and  is  frequently  mercerized  and  mixed  with  silk.  The 
appearance  of  the  cloth,  if  the  best  cotton  (carefully  spun)  is  used, 
is  much  better  than  when  short,  defective  fibers  are  made  into  yarn. 
In  general,  the  warp  yarns  (those  which  run  the  length  of  the  cloth ) , 
which  have  the  greater  strain  upon  them,  are  made  of  the  longer, 
better  cotton  twisted  into  a  strong  thread ;  the  filling  yarns  are  more 
apt  to  be  loosely  twisted  and  soft,  and  shorter  staple  cottons  are 
used  in  them. 

Cotton  wastes  have  be<  n  used  more  in  Europe  than  in  the 
United  States.  The  demand,  however,  is  increasing  here.  The  poor 
of  Europe  depend  upon  them  largely  for  their  blankets,  shirtings, 
trousers,  suit  in. ITS,  and  dress  goods.  There  was  much  suH'erini: 
there  during  the  war  from  the  lack  of  cheap  cotton  goods.  The 
preparation  of  cotton  wastes  for  spinning  is  similar  to  that  I'm- 

•Supplement  to  ManiifjM-tiin-r-.    IN-ropl.      Baltimore,  Oct^luT  2.'i,   1!H<>. 


COTTON  CLOTHING  35 

reworked  wool  (see  Chapter  II,  section  "Wool  By-Products"). 
Soft  wastes  come  from  the  preparatory  spinning  processes  and 
hard  wastes  from  woven  goods,  new  and  old.  Much  of  our  cotton 
rags  have  been  exported  to  Germany,  England  and  Belgium  where 
they  are  made  into  cheap  goods  for  the  poorer  classes.  Soft  waste 
is  used  again  in  our  own  mills  or  sold  to  those  making  cheaper  goods. 
The  Beginning  of  Modern  Industry. — The  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  in  1792  by  Eli  Whitney  was  an  important  factor  in  be- 
ginning the  present  industrial  era  of  civilization.  Before  that  time 
it  took  one  man  a  day  to  pick  the  seeds  from  one  pound  of  cotton. 
The  modern  saw  gin  made  after  the  Whitney  model  can  clean  5000 
pounds  in  a  day.  Small  domestic  workrooms  fitted  with  spinning 
wheels  and  hand  looms  were  the  textile  factories  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  in  England.  The  manager  and  owner 
worked  with  the  other  workers  and  knew  them  personally.  The 
goods  were  sold  to  itinerant  merchants  or  at  fairs.  The  need  for 
cheap  fiber  was  great,  and  America  could  not  send  enough  cotton. 
The  demand  for  warp  thread  was  incessant,  for  only  the  best 
spinners  could  be  relied  upon  to  make  it.  The  pressing  demand  for 
yarn  brought  forth  the  inventions  of  spinning  frames  which  could 
spin  a  number  of  threads  at  once  where  the  wheels  usually  spun 
but  one.  Hargreaves,  Crompton,  and  Arkwright  introduced  their 
spinning  frames  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  these 
were  the  forerunners  of  the  great  mule  and  upright  spinning  ma- 
chines of  the  present  day.  Steam  power  was  soon  applied  to  these 
inventions  and  the  power  loom  made  its  appearance  about  the  same 
time.  The  invention  of  the  saw  gin  by  Whitney  made  possible  a 
goodly  supply  of  cotton  on  which  the  new  spinning  frames  could 
work.  The  new  machinery  was  more  expensive  than  the  old  and  it 
took  much  capital  to  build  and  furnish  a  factory.  At  first  the  frames 
were  worked  by  horse  or  water  power,  but  later  by  steam,  and 
had  to  be  placed  in  specially  constructed  buildings.  The  domestic 
workrooms  passed  and  factories  were  started,  the  workers  having  to 
live  near — small  towns  sprang  up  about  the  mills.  The  owner  no 
longer  knew  the  workers  and  frequently  did  not  understand  the 
business.  The  manager  was  interested  in  making  money  for  his 
employer.  It  was  not  long  before  all  the  modern  labor  questions 
and  troubles  appeared,  from  which  the  world  has  been  suffering 


36  CLOTHING 

ever  since.  Materials  were  made  in  quantities  and  cheaply,  but 
were  frequently  poorer  in  construction  than  under  the  domestic  sys- 
tem, and  the  women  of  the  households,  no  longer  being  called  upon 
to  weave  and  spin,  lost  their  knowledge  of  the  value  of  textile  mate- 
rials and  their  wise  judgment  in  selecting  and  testing  them.  The 
division  between  poverty  and  wealth  became  wider.  Gradually  the 
great  factory  system  took  textile  production  from  the  home,  and 
now  the  construction  of  garments  is  rapidly  following  it  into 
the  factories. 

Cotton  Yarn  Making. — All  cotton  is  carded  (a  sort  of  comb- 
ing) in  order  to  clean  it,  open  it  up,  and  lay  the  fibers  in  a  condi- 
tion for  spinning.  Although  the  fiber  of  cotton  is  short,  it  is 
naturally  twisted,  which  is  a  large  factor  in  the  strength  of  the 
yarn.  This  twist  cannot  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  but  through 
a  strong  glass  the  fiber  looks  like  a  twisted  piece  of  baby  ribbon. 
The  cheaper  yarns  are  carded  but  once,  but  the  better  grades  are 
twice  carded  and  thus  made  smoother,  cleaner,  and  more  attrac- 
tive. The  best  yarns  are  carded,  combed  and  even  double  combed, 
which  greatly  improves  the  appearance  and  also  adds  to  the  price, 
but  does  not  always  increase  the  strength.  The  newer  combing 
machines  can  comb  even  the  very  shortest  fibers.  The  processes 
that  follow  the  carding  and  combing  are  preparatory  to  the  spinning ; 
the  spinning,  or  twisting  is  the  final  step  before  the  yarn  is  ready 
for  bleaching,  dyeing,  weaving,  and  final  finishing.  The  majority 
of  cotton  goods  are  woven  in  the  plain  or  tabby  weave,  as  in  muslins 
and  sheetings;  twill  weaves  are  also  used,  as  in  khaki  and  drilling, 
and  even  the  Jacquard  loom  is  called  upon  for  elaborate  designs. 

Cotton  Finishing. — The  finishing  of  cotton  goods  is  a  very  im- 
portant part  of  their  appearance  and  the  number  of  methods  is 
almost  endless.  Some  of  these  final  processes  are  harmless,  as  re- 
gards their  effect  on  wearing  quality,  some  are  advantageous,  and 
others  weaken.  The  resemblance  of  cotton  to  other  textiles  is 
largely  a  matter  of  dressings  and  finishings.  Many  of  the  familiar 
materials,  such  as  cambric,  nainsook,  and  muslin,  look  much  alike 
after  weaving,  but  the  finish  changes  their  appearance.  Gloss  can 
be  imparted  by  mucilage  or  gum,  as  in  many  lining  materials; 
softness  by  oils,  as  in  mulls;  a  solid  appearance  by  clay,  as  in  cre- 
tonnes; the  sheen  of  silk  by  dressing  and  calendering  or  by  burning 


COTTON  CLOTHING  37 

off  the  surface  fluff.  Full  finishes  are  given  by  starch.  Dressings 
followed  by  pressure  with  milled  rollers  give  special  effects.  Ma- 
terials are  made  waterproof  or  non-inflammable  by  treatment. 
Cotton  is  not  naturally  absorbent,  but  can  be  made  so  by  removing 
the  wax,  oil,  and  mineral  salts.  If  a  fabric  is  made  of  cotton  yarn 
with  short,  imperfect  fibers,  and  is  loosely  woven,  it  can  be  given  a 
surface  finish  which  looks  well  to  the  superficial  glance,  but  after 
wearing  or  laundering  the  dressing  passes,  and  the  poor  fabric  is 
disclosed.  Cheap  neckwear,  inexpensive  lace-trimmed  underwear 
and  night  gowns,  or  low-priced  blouses  are  apt  to  be  thus  treated 
and  are  not  good  investments.  If  good  stock  had  been  used  in  the 
first  place,  and  the  weaving  was  strong,  the  price  would  be  higher, 
but  the  endurance  would  make  up  more  than  the  difference  in  price. 
A  good  material  can  have  much  of  the  finish  which  is  lost  in  service 
restored  by  starch  and  pressing  in  the  laundry.  It  is  difficult,  how- 
ever, to  restore  the  crisp  look  and  feel  of  some  cottons,  such  as 
organdie  and  stiff  lawns;  therefore,  for  the  economical  house- 
keeper it  is  better  to  buy  those  fabrics  which  will  be  more  satis- 
factory in  the  long  run. 

Pressing  or  calendering  is  a  main  reliance  in  the  finish  of  cotton 
goods.  Sateen,  for  instance,  after  weaving  the  cloth  in  a  twill,  is 
dressed  with  glycerine  and  then  passed  many  times  through  the 
calender.  Many  materials  are  gassed  to  rid  the  surface  of  fluff,  and 
heavy  pressure  brings  out  further  light  which  lasts  for  a  time  at 
least.  The  scroop  or  rustle  characteristic  of  silk  can  be  put  into 
cotton  goods  by  treatment.  A  more  permanent  silk  effect  is  given 
by  mercerizing  the  yarn  or  the  cloth  itself  with  a  caustic  alkali, 
which  causes  shrinking,  but  by  preventing  this,  the  fiber  takes  on  a 
high  degree  of  luster.  The  fabric  is  finished  by  heavy  calendering. 
Some  of  the  sheen  is  lost  when  it  is  laundered,  but  much  remains. 
Mercerized  material  is  stronger  than  the  ordinary  cotton  and  holds 
the  dye  better.  Seersucker  effects  in  stripes  can  be  obtained  by 
printing  the  cloth  in  narrow  stripes  with  caustic  soda  which  con- 
tracts it.  Many  novelties  are  made  by  combining  printing  and 
mercerization.  In  mercerizing  the  chemical  structure  of  the  cotton 
is  changed  and  it  becomes  translucent  which  effect  is  more  per- 
manent than  when  cotton  is  simply  dressed  and  calendered.  The 
cotton  is  treated  with  caustic  soda  which  contracts  and  strengthens 


38  CLOTHING 

it.  By  preventing  the  shrinkage  the  cotton  takes  on  the  silk-like 
appearance  known  as  mercerization.  This  effect  is  still  further 
accentuated  by  surface  treatment. 

Lisle  thread,  which  is  often  mistaken  for  silk,  is  made  of 
long-stapled  cotton,  combed,  closely  twisted,  and  gassed.  Linen 
effects  are  obtained  by  spinning  the  cotton  with  little  knots 
at  intervals  to  make  it  look  like  linen  yarn,  weaving  it  in  a 
linen  pattern,  such  as  huckaback  or  damask,  and  dressing  it. 
After  calendering,  the  glistening  effect  of  linen  is  emphasized 
by  beetling  (hitting  the  cloth  with  hammers  as  it  passes  over 
a  cylinder).  Wool  effects  depend  upon  the  way  the  yarn  is 
spun  and  woven,  and  treatment  with  chemicals,  which  give  the 
effect  and  feel  of  wool.  Cotton,  when  specially  prepared,  takes 
dye  as  wool  does,  and  the  final  gigging  roughens  up  the  surface  and 
adds  the  dull,  soft  appearance  of  wool.  Cotton  blankets,  for  in- 
stance, look  and  feel  like  wool,  and  cost  less  than  one-half  the  price. 
They  give  fair  service,  but  they  will  act  like  cotton,  and  are  not  as 
satisfactory  for  the  purpose  as  wool.  Chenille  curtains  look  like 
wool,  but  are  cotton  woven  from  a  yarn  which  has  ends  protrud- 
ing. When  finished  the  effect  is  attractive,  but  the  wear  in  the 
lower  priced  ones  is  unsatisfactory  and  the  inflammability  great. 
Materials  can  be  so  treated  that  they  are  soft  on  the  surface  and 
stiff  on  the  back,  as  with  pique  and  velveteen.  Many  of  these 
effects  are  temporary,  as  cotton  soils  and  crushes,  consequently, 
needs  frequent  washing  or  cleaning,  and  the  finish  soon  passes  away. 
It  is  well  to  remember  these  facts  in  buying  cotton  fabrics  that  look 
like  wool  or  silk,  for  if  the  garment  is  made  up  as  if  it  were  truly 
one  of  those  textiles,  it  will  soon  be  soiled,  and  if  it  has  to  be  cleaned 
continually  it  will  be  expensive. 

Warp  yarns  must  be  si/ed  before  they  are  woven  or  they  would 
not  stand  the  heavy  strain  upon  them  in  the  loom.  If,  in  addition, 
the  cloth  is  loosely  woven  and  filled  with  dressing  the  wear  may  not 
be  satisfactory  as  the  finish  passes  away.  Many  cotton  dress  mate- 
rials, even  of  the  best  kimK  such  as  Lrinirhams,  will  shrink  in  the 
laundry,  for  in  their  final  finish  they  have  been  stretched  to  dry  on 
the  tentering  frames,  and  dmnir  at  full  tension  they  are  smooth 
and  even ;  when  washed  they  lose  some  of  the  dressing  and  conse- 
quently contract. 


COTTON  CLOTHING  39 

Printing  Designs- — The  printing  of  designs  on  cotton  fabric  as 
it  comes  in  the  natural  color  from  the  loom  (gray  goods),  as  in 
calico,  instead  of  weaving  the  pattern  in  with  dyed  yarn,  as  in 
gingham,  is  extensively  used  with  cotton  cloths,  and  good  effects 
are  gained.  Organdies,  lawns,  percales,  voiles,  cretonnes,  chintz, 
and  silkalines  often  have  patterns  printed  on  them.  When  the 
printing  is  done  carefully  with  good  dyes,  as  in  some  fine  percales, 
the  figure  is  enduring,  but  the  price  will  be  higher  than  when 
rapid,  cheap  methods  are  employed.  Eaw  stock  dyeing  is  done  after 
the  cotton  has  passed  through  the  pickers  or  on  the  slub,  which  is  a 
process  preceding  spinning.  If  good  dyes  are  used  in  yarn  dyeing, 
the  color  sinks  more  deeply  into  the  yarn  than  in  printing 
and  is  apt  to  be  fast.  Some  cloths  are  dyed  in  the  piece  after  weav- 
ing, but  are  less  enduring  than  yarn  dyeing.  To  tell  the  differ- 
ence between  the  various  ways  that  the  dyes  have  been  used  the 
cloth  can  be  frayed,  both  warp  way  and  woof  way,  for  a  little  dis- 
tance, and  the  appearance  of  the  yarn  noted.  If  dyed  in  the  raw 
stock  or  in  the  yarn  the  threads  will  be  of  a  solid  color,  the  former 
being  more  satisfactory,  as  the  color  spreads  through  the  fiber. 
If  dyed  in  the  piece  the  color  will  be  irregular  on  the  yarn,  for  the 
dye  does  not  sink  in  evenly ;  if  the  design  is  printed  on  the  cloth  the 
yarn  will  have  blotches  of  color  at  intervals.  Much  duplicate  print- 
ing is  done  (printed  on  both  sides)  which  at  a  quick  glance  looks  as  if 
the  material  were  woven  of  dyed  yarn.  Gingham,  chambray,  madras, 
zephyr,  kindergarten  cloth,  seersucker,  Devonshire  cloth,  and  some 
crepes  are  woven  of  material  dyed  in  the  yarn.  Imitation  ginghams 
are  made  by  printing  the  pattern  on  the  surface  of  gray  goods. 
Poplins,  crepes  and  other  solid  colored  cloths  are  often  dyed  in  the 
piece.  Cheap  varieties  of  printed  goods  are  seldom  fast  colors. 

Laces  and  Findings  (Cotton). — Laces  are  made  by  machinery 
to  imitate  hand-made  pillow  and  needle-point  linen  laces.  They 
may  be  very  useful  for  clothing  and  underwear  if  they  are  care- 
fully selected  as  to  strength.  Embroideries  and  passementeries 
are  also  made  of  cotton,  those  worked  with  mercerized  cotton  being 
used  in  place  of  silk.  There  are  several  varieties  of  embroidery 
machines,  the  best  turning  out  an  excellent  product  and  the  other 
machines  bringing  out  cheaper  imitations.  In  St.  Gall,  Switzer- 
land, large  quantities  of  these  products  are  manufactured,  the  old- 


40  CLOTHING 

time  hand  work,  the  finer  machine  embroidery,  and  the  cheaper 
machine  product  all  being  made  there.  Tn  the  last,  effects  are 
often  gained  at  the  expense  of  value.  In  both  laces  and  embroid- 
eries of  cotton  the  cheaper  product  is  of  little  value,  and  the  wise 
housekeeper  will  buy  only  such  decoration  when  she  is  assured  that 
the  strength  of  edge  is  good  and  satisfactory  laundering  is  assured. 
Plauen,  Germany,  is  noted  for  its  machine  embroideries,  and  Not- 
tingham, England,  for  its  machine  laces.  France  also  does  a  good 
business  in  cotton  laces,  and  the  United  States  is  increasing  its 
industry  in  both  laces  and  embroideries.  Much  of  the  thin  imita- 
tion Valenciennes  (Val)  laces  found  on  ready-to-wear  underwear 
are  too  valueless  to  be  anything  but  an  extravagance.  Narrow, 
strong  laces  are  the  only  satisfactory  ones  for  undermuslins.  The 
more  familiar  varieties  of  these  are  Torchon,  Valenciennes,  Filet, 
Irish,  and  Cluny.  Embroideries  are  made  on  batiste,  nainsook, 
Swiss  and  cambric.  Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  used  in  nar- 
row goods,  such  as  tapes,  bindings,  braids,  and  lacings  for  shoes, 
and  for  corsets,  or  other  articles. 

The  Properties  of  Cotton. — The  characteristics  of  cotton  make 
it  of  service  in  an  endless  variety  of  products  and  purposes:  for 
light-weight  summer  clothing  and  indoor  dress  all  the  year;  in 
household  purposes  for  curtains,  draperies,  sheets,  pillow  cases,  and 
rugs;  for  porous  underwear  next  to  the  skin,  since  it  can  be  easily 
washed  and  sterilized;  for  clothing  for  cold  weather  and  for  bed 
covering,  since  it  can  be  made  warm  and  is  not  expensive,  although 
it  needs  care  to  keep  it  in  good  condition;  and  for  heavy  use  in 
bagging,  sails,  and  awning  material.  In  fabrics  made  to  represent 
other  textiles  it  has  wonderful  capability. 

The  natural  twist  of  cotton  fiber  gives  it  strength,  especially  in 
the  longer-stapled  varieties,  hence  it  has  much  endurance  for  cloth- 
ing or  other  purposes.  It  absorbs  water  and  launders  easily,  but 
does  not  dry  quickly,  therefore,  as  underwear,  if  the  wearer  has 
been  in  a  perspiration,  it  is  apt  to  keep  damp.  This  quality  is  not 
good  for  health.  (See  Chapter  VII,  section  "The  Part  Textiles 
Play.")  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  which  makes  it  satisfactory 
for  summer  clothing,  especially  in  light  colors,  but  in  winter  this 
quality  makes  the  wearer  of  solid  cotton  underwear  feel  chilly, 
especially  if  perspiration  is  present.  It  can  stand  great  heat  in  the 


COTTON  CLOTHING  41 

laundry,  consequently,  can  be  sterilized  easily,  which  makes  it  ad- 
mirable for  undermuslins  for  household  and  hospital  use.  It  has 
little  elasticity,  crushes  easily,  and  readily  becomes  mussy.  It  has 
much  oil  in  it,  which  catches  the  dust,  so  that  it  needs  to  be 
laundered  frequently,  and  the  oil  increases  its  inflammability.  It 
does  not  hold  dye  well  and  often  after  a  few  washings  will  begin  to 
look  gray.  Stockings  in  dark  colors,  which  to  keep  in  good  condi- 
tion should  be  washed  out  every  night,  will  often  lose  their  dye, 
and  ,soon  appear  shabby.  The  lint  comes  off  easily ,  which  is  a 
detriment,  especially  when  cotton  is  used  for  tea  towels,  for  it  is 
left  on  drinking  glasses  and  china.  It  is  easily  set  on  fire,  and  soft 
finished,  napped  goods,  such  as  outing  flannels  and  chenille,  are 
dangerous  on  this  account.  As  cotton  shrinks,  tears,  and  fades 
easily,  it  must  be  laundered  carefully.  Its  specific  gravity  or  weight 
is  greater  than  wool,  which  is  noticeable  when  cotton  blankets  are 
over  one  at  night  in  the  place  of  an  equal  number  of  all  wool  blankets. 

Suggestions. — Cheap  cotton  laces,  embroidered  handkerchiefs, 
dress  goods,  and  undermuslins,  and  poorly-woven,  over-sized  lawns 
and  cambrics  should  be  avoided.  Cotton  laces  may  be  enduring, 
but  the  thread  must  be  well  twisted  and  run  diagonally,  making 
an  interlocking  edge.  A  narrow,  strong  lace  for  undermuslins 
wears  well,  but  the  usual  thin  laces  soon  tear  and  become  shabby. 

Cottons  must  be  washed  carefully,  and  if  colored,  dried  in  the 
shade.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section  "  Home  Laundering.")  Cotton 
garments  should  be  unlined  and  made  simply,  so  they  can  be 
laundered  and  pressed  frequently.  A  cotton  shepherd's  plaid,  for 
instance,  will  give  excellent  service  if  it  is  so  made  that  it  can  be 
laundered.  If  a  cloth  is  very  heavy  it  is  not  easy  to  get  rid  of  the 
soiled  spots,  and  if  dyed  may  streak  in  the  laundry.  Bright  or 
dark  colors  must  be  avoided  or  be  tested  for  endurance  before  buy- 
ing. Colored  fabrics,  made  of  alternate  color  and  white,  often 
bleed  in  the  wash,  and  unless  care  is  taken  the  color  will  tinge 
the  white.  The  United  States  has  made  great  progress  in  solving 
the  dye  question,  and  fast  American  dyes  are  now  being  manu- 
factured which  will  help  cotton  to  hold  its  color.  (See  Chapter  XII, 
section  "  Dyeing  and  Tinting.")  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to 
purchase  cheap  colored  cottons,  for  the  best  dyes  and  methods  are 
seldom  used  upon  them.  When  desiring  to  buy  a  cotton  fabric  of 


42  CLOTHING 

which  there  is  doubt  of  the  fastness  of  the  color,  test  out  a  sample 
for  a  few  days  in  a  sunny  window.  (See  Chapter  VIII,  section 
"  Tests.")  It  is  not  well  to  wear  colored  cottons  next  to  the  skin ; 
the  dye  is  apt  to  come  off.  Many  complaints  have  been  made  of 
colored  flannelette  shirting  and  black  stockings  the  dye  from  which 
poisoned  the  skin. 

A  good  cotton  dress  is  no  longer  cheap,  and  should  be  bought 
with  much  thought.  White  or  cream  colors  in  a  well  twisted  voile, 
and  dress  muslins,  such  as  Indian  Head,  are  apt  to  be  more  satis- 
factory for  long  service  than  colored  ones.  Pique,  corduroy,  and 
jean  wear  well  in  white,  but  are  heavy  to  launder.  The  dark- 
colored  denims,  galateas,  khakis,  and  other  substantial  twilled 
goods  are  apt  to  streak  in  the  laundry,  but  the  lighter  weight  twills 
are  easier  to  launder  satisfactorily.  Serges,  gabardines,  covert 
cloths  of  cotton  in  dark  colors  are  difficult  to  keep  clean,  un- 
spotted, and  well  pressed,  but  may  look  well  if  care  is  taken 
of  them. 

Before  buying,  the  consumer  should  see  if  the  weave  is  good, 
the  dye  fast,  the  yarn  strong,  and  if  stiffening  and  starches  are  too 
heavy.  The  yarn  should  be  evenly  twisted  and  the  number  of  threads 
approximately  equal  in  the  warp  and  woof  way. 

Cotton  pile  fabrics,  if  well  made,  such  as  plush,  chinchilla,  and 
corduroy  are  warm  and  enduring;  the  colors  chosen  should  be  ser- 
viceable ones.  Cheap  velveteens  with  the  color  printed  on  them  arc 
not  worth  buying. 

( 'heap  cotton  stockings  do  not  wear  well ;  the  better  grades  are 
more  enduring,  but  all  stockings  repay  good  care.  (See  Chapter 
VI,  section  "Knit  Goods  and  Hosiery/'  and  Chapter  XI,  section 
"The  Care  of  Various  Articles.") 

Elaborate  woven  patterns  in  cotton  do  not  always  wear  as  well 
as  the  more  simple  ones.  Some  goods  are  made  with  a  design  which 
r«M|uin-s  Inn*:  floats  of  yarn  at  the  back  which  are  cut  off  by  machin- 
ery before  the  goods  are  finished.  When  a  garment  made  from  such 
material  has  to' be  laundered  fn-qm-Mtlv  there  is  danger  of  the 
pulling  out  of  the  pattern  tlm-ads  from  the  surl'sn •<•. 

Many  knitted  iroods  are  made  of  cotton  and  are  most  useful, 
such  as  hosiery,  underwear,  sweaters,  caps,  ami  jackets.  For  under- 
wear next  to  the  skin,  knitted  cotton  is  worn  more  than  any  other 


COTTON  CLOTHING  43 

textile,  for  it  is  cheap.  When  solidly  knitted  with  a  napped  surface 
the  garments  may  feel  soft  and  warm,  but  are  less  hygienic  than 
the  open-mesh  variety.  ( See  Chapter  VII,  section  "  The  Part 
Textiles  Play.") 

Cotton  blankets  and  bath  wrappers  are  used  largely  in  place  of 
wool  ones,  for  they  are  within  the  limits  of  the  pocketbooks  of  the 
majority  of  people.  They  are  of  service,  but  it  is  well  to  remember 
their  limitations.  The  soft  surface,  which  imprisons  the  air,  makes 
them  feel  warm,  but  as  cotton  soils  quickly  they  must  be  washed 
frequently,  and  the  downy  appearance  is  lost  unless  great  care  is 
taken  to  restore  it — for  cotton  is  not  as  elastic  as  wool  and  there- 
fore crushes  down  more  easily.  Dyes  are  not  usually  so  fast  in  cot- 
ton as  in  wool;  cotton  is  more  inflammable  and  with  a  napped 
finish  is  especially  so,  and  thus  becomes  dangerous  when  near  a 
fire  or  open  flame.  A  warm  and  serviceable  blanket  material,  less 
expensive  than  all  wool  and  lighter  in  weight  than  all  cotton,  is 
made  of  a  foundation  of  knitted  cotton  with  wool  held  in  the 
meshes.  This  is  finished  to  have  a  solid  wool  surface  and  is 
called  Eiderdown. 

Cotton  towels  are  taking  the  place  of  linen  ones  on  account  of 
the  scarcity  of  flax,  but  the  properties  of  cotton  make  it  not  so  sani- 
tary for  household  purposes  as  is  linen.  (See  Chapter  V,  section 
"  Linen  for  Clothing  and  Household,"  and  Chapter  VII,  section 
"  The  Part  Textiles  Play/')  If  cotton  towelling  is  used  it  should 
be  washed  and  boiled  very  frequently  to  keep  it  in  a  hygienic  con- 
dition. Turkish  towels  are  made  of  cotton  and  come  in  various 
grades.  The  surface  loops  hold  the  air  and  help  in  drying  the  body 
when  a  smoothly-woven  cotton  cloth  would  be  less  effective.  There 
is  a  double  set  of  warp  threads,  some  of  which  are  used  for  the 
ground  and  the  remainder  for  the  loops.  A  weave  similar  to  that 
used  for  uncut  velvet  is  used,  or  the  loom  can  automatically  re- 
lease certain  warp  threads  which  appear  as  loops  on  the  surface. 
The  best  towelling  is  made  of  good  yarn,  two  or  more  threads  are 
in  each  loop,  and  the  ground  is  substantial.  The  filling  is  double 
and  several  alternating  threads  hold  the  loops  well  in  place,  con- 
sequently, the  structure  is  strong  and  the  loops  do  not  readily  pull 
out.  The  poorer  varieties  are  altogether  less  substantial,  as  is  evi- 
dent on  examining  the  end  of  the  towel  where  the  loops  do  not  occur. 


44  CLOTHING 

It  is  worth  while  to  pay  the  higher  price  for  the  better  quality. 
Newer  kinds  of  bath  towels  and  washcloths  are  made  of  porous  ma- 
terials, the  air  being  a  factor  in  drying.  Some  of  these  are  made 
in  a  gauze  texture  resembling  knitting  with  open  spaces  of  some 
size.  Soiled  spots  on  the  heavier  towelling  of  this  kind  are  often 
hard  to  eradicate,  but  the  drying  quality  of  the  towel  is  good. 

The  serge  weave  used  in  many  cotton  dress  goods  will  usually 
stay  clean  longer  than  will  the  plain  weave,  but  when  it  does  be- 
come soiled  it  is  more  difficult  to  launder,  as  the  dirt  clings  to  the 
weave.  As  cotton  crushes  readily  a  gown  of  heavy  material  is  apt 
to  have  many  creases  across  the  back  of  the  dress  which  are  diffi- 
cult to  press  out. 

On  account  of  the  necessary  dressings  in  cotton  dress  goods  and 
the  drying  of  the  cloth  on  the  tenters  after  finishing,  it  is  well  to 
wash  such  fabrics  before  making  them  up  to  allow  them  to  shrink. 
As  this  takes  away  some  of  the  attractive  "  new  look,"  many  make 
their  gowns  larger  and  longer  than  necessary  at  first,  thus  allowing 
for  the  shrinkage  in  the  laundry. 

Before  buying  cotton  materials  the  wise  housekeeper  will  con- 
sider the  following  questions:  Is  this  material  suited  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  I  am  buying  it?  It  makes  considerable  difference 
whether  an  active  child  is  to  wear  the  gown  or  a  careful,  older 
woman,  who  only  uses  such  a  garment  a  few  times  in  a  season. 
Will  the  material  launder  or  will  it  lose  its  color  and  finish?  Will 
it  wash  easily,  or  will  it  be  apt  to  collect  dirty  spots  which  will  be 
hard  to  remove  and  streak  from  rubbing.  Is  it  an  enduring 
fabric,  or  is  it  full  of  dressing  which  will  soon  pass,  and  will  the 
material  easily  tear?  For  example,  rosebud  sprigged  dimity  is 
alluring,  but  the  cords  in  the  weave  are  not  easy  to  iron  without  much 
heat,  and  the  heat  may  not  be  the  best  thing  for  the  printed  buds  or 
tin  -heer  material  between  the  cords. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  reasons  for  the  present  high  prices  of  cotton  goods? 

2.  Give  the  leading  cotton  materials,  their  uses  and  possible  endurance. 

3.  Collect  samples  of  the  kind  of  cotton  goods  which  would  be  most  satis- 

factory for  the  clothing  of  children  lietweon  eight  and  fourteen. 

4.  What  are  the  properties  of  cotton,  and  how  do  they  affect  its  u-efnl- 

for  outer  clothing,  underwear,  and  household  purposes? 


COTTON  CLOTHING  45 

5.  From  actual  experience  with  dyed  cotton  materials  state  which  of  the 
following  yield  the  most  satisfactory  results:  Dyed  in  the  raw  stock; 
in  the  yarn ;  in  the  piece ;  and  also  woven-in  design  or  printing. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Why  is  cotton  of  such  great  importance  in  industry? 

2.  What  are  the  main  principles  of  cotton  manufacture?     Give  the  effect 

of  various  finishes  as  related  to  the  service  of  cotton  materials. 

3.  Consider  and  state  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  modern  power 

machine  production  over  the  domestic  system. 


CHAPTER  IV 
SILK  CLOTHING 

The  Silk  Situation. — The  United  States  is  one  of  the  most 
important  silk  manufacturing  nations,  but  relies  for  its  raw  mate- 
rials on  other  countries.  Silkworms  have  been  and  can  be  grown 
here,  but  for  many  economic  reasons  the  rearing  of  the  worms  has 
not  been  developed  to  any  extent. 

During  the  war  production  costs  advanced  in  all  branches  of 
the  industry,  for  labor  was  scarce  and  expensive,  consequently,  the 
costs  of  throwing  (twisting),  weaving,  dyeing,  and  finishing  were 
greater.  Retail  prices  naturally  rose  for  wholesale  ones  were,  in 
some  instances,  70  per  cent,  higher  than  before  the  war.  The 
war  over,  the  difficulties  attending  the  reconstruction  to  a  peace 
basis  began,  labor  being  still  difficult  to  obtain,  high  in  price,  and 
restless;  raw  material  scarce  and  orders  from  the  retail  trade  cur- 
tailed, for  many  customers  waited  a  decline  in  prices  before  pur- 
chasing. The  range  of  prices  in  some  well-known  silks  is  significant 
of  conditions  in  the  industry.  The  figures  below  were  given 
by  one  of  the  largest  silk  manufacturers  in  the  United  States. 
They  show  the  highest  and  lowest  range  in  any  one  year  from 
1915  to  1919  (this  does  not  include)  remnants  or  job  lots). 
They  were  based  upon  actual  production  costs  and  a  fair  profit. 
In  the  case  of  satin  the  increase  was  as  high  as  100  per  cent.  Some 
manufacturers  expect  still  higher  prices,  if  shorter  working  hours 
are  established,  but  other  firms  are  looking  for  a  decline.  Until 
the  unsettled  conditions  incident  to  reconstruction  pass  there  can 
be  no  certainty  as  to  price  and  a  slow  decline  will  be  more  advan- 
tageous for  the  market. 

COMPARISON  OF  SILK  PRICES  4 


1915                  1916                    1917 

Georgette    ,  .  .  $.90~$.05     $.95-$l  .30     $1  .20-$  1  .45 
S:it  in                    1  10-1  50     110-210       1  90-  2  45 

1918 

$1.30-$1.75 
2  00     3  00 

1919 
$1  .45-$!  .05 
2  50-  3  00 

Foulard    .77        77-  l  40       1  30-   1  .V> 

1  15     •'  '{o 

IS.!     o  05 

'••<*                         175     1  10     250       9  00     '{00 

225      2  75 

3  00-  3  25 

TiiHsah                         1  00     1  00—  1  50       1  25—  215 

1  ft^—  915 

1  fi5 

*  Women'  a  Wear,  February  20    1919,  page  I 
46 

5. 

SILK  CLOTHING  47 

A  serious  break  in  the  Japanese  market  in  1920  increased  the 
price  of  silk  goods  in  the  United  States.  The  best  Japanese  reeled 
silk  (Double  Extra  Crack)  rose  to  $18.39  a  pound  (more  than 
300  per  cent,  over  pre-war  prices).  Many  orders  for  fabrics  which 
had  been  given  to  silk  manufacturers  were  cancelled,  causing 
much  distress.  Business  has  again  reacted,  prices  are  more  nor- 
mal and  there  is  a  steady  demand  for  woven  and  knitted  materials. 

The  raw  silk  (including  Tussah)  production  of  the  world  in 
1920-1921  was  46,467,500  pounds.  Japan  exported  in  this  year 
24,300,000  pounds,  China  12,378,500,  and  Italy  7,330,000.  The 
imports  into  the  United  States  in  the  fiscal  year,  1920- 
1921  were:2— 

Foreign 
Pounds  InvoiceValue 

Raw  silk    (including  Tussah)    29,462,745  $181,882  615 

Spun   silk    2.545,817  10,050^851 

Waste    silk     5.289,923  8,399,986 

Manufactured    silk    3,472,258  22,508,836 

Spun  silk  yarn,  made  from  waste  silk,  was  used  during  the  war 
for  cartridge  cloth.  The  powder  for  discharging  heavy  artillery  is 
placed  in  bags  which  are  inserted  directly  behind  the  projectile. 
The  firing  of  these  bags  of  powder  gives  the  force  to  hurl  the  missile 
to  its  target.  Silk  has  been  used  for  the  bags,  as  this  textile  meets 
the  necessary  conditions  of  complete  disintegration  when  the  gun 
is  fired.  If  a  particle  of  smouldering  fabric  is  left  it  may  cause  a 
premature  explosion  when  a  new  charge  is  inserted.  Approxi- 
mately 3,000,000  yards  of  cartridge  cloth  was  on  hand  when  the 
Armistice  was  signed.  An  outlet  for  this  material  was  suggested 
in  women's  sport  suits,  the  price  ranging  from  $1.75  to  $3  per  yard. 

As  large  amounts  of  tin  were  needed  in  war  industries,  and  the 
supply  was  limited,  the  silk  dyers  were  asked  to  report  on  the 
amount  of  this  metal  which  is  used  in  weighting  silk.  The  presi- 
dent of  a  silk  dyeing  company,  in  his  testimony  before  the  tariff 
commission,  gave  the  following  statement:  "Five  hundred  to  600 
drums,  weighing  900  to  1000  pounds,  of  tetrachloride  of  tin  are 
used  monthly  by  the  silk  dyeing  industry.  This  is  in  liquid  form 
and  tin  constitutes  about  45.4  per  cent,  of  the  solution.  Some  of 
this  is  washed  off  in  the  frequent  washings  of  the  silk/'3  Much  is 

2  Statistical   Bureau  of  the  Silk  Association  of  America. 
•  Women's  Wear,  June   9,    1918,   page  7. 


48  CLOTHING 

recovered  in  a  special  treatment  of  the  wash  water,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  large  quantities  of  tin  are  used  to  increase  the  weight 
and  thus  make  the  supply  of  fiber  go  further.  The  consumer  has 
long  been  aware  of  this  treatment  of  silk,  but  has  not  always  under- 
stood the  effect  upon  the  endurance  of  the  material.  The  urging  of 
thrift  in  the  households  during  the  war  and  after  has  aroused  the 
consumer  to  interest  in  the  endurance  of  clothing.  This  new  temper 
in  the  purchaser  of  goods  (i.e.,  the  desire  to  know  whether  mate- 
rial will  endure)  has  begun  to  be  appreciated  by  the  silk  buyers  of 
some  of  the  retail  houses,  and  they  are  refusing  to  buy  silks  that 
are  not  of  good  value,  for  they  see  that  the  price  has  become  less 
important  to  many  customers  than  the  quality.  Large  numbers  of 
women  are  buying  textiles  for  real  service  and  not  for  effect  alone. 
The  dyer  and  manufacturer  are  willing  to  make  pure  dye  silks  if 
the  consumer  desires  them  and  if  she  is  willing  to  pay  for  them. 
The  weighting  is  done  just  before  dyeing  and  this  work  is  usually 
placed  in  the  hands  of  big  commission  dyers  who  dye  for  anyone. 
It  is  not  always,  therefore,  the  weaver  and  finisher  of  the  silk  who 
can  tell  the  condition  of  the  yarn,  as  it  has  been  treated  before  it 
comes  to  them  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  appearance  of  weighted 
silk  to  indicate  its  weakness  until  deterioration  begins.  There  are, 
however,  tests  which  the  consumer  can  try  at  home  which  will 
reveal  conditions. 

The  Silk  Industry. — Silk  is  the  fiber  spun  by  the  silkworm  for 
its  cocoon.  It  is  an  unbroken  filament  which  comes  from  the  body 
of  the  silk  caterpillar  before  it  enters  the  pupa  state.  The  latter 
subsequently  emerges  from  the  cocoon  as  a  moth.  The  fiber  is  later 
unwound  from  the  cocoon  by  the  raw  silk  reeler  and  furnishes  the 
silk  used  in  commerce.  It  is  the  costliest  and  most  beautiful  of 
the  textile  fibers. 

Cultivated  and  wild  varieties  of  silk  are  both  in  use.  The 
Bombyx  mori  or  cultivated  silkworm  is  produced  in  China,  Japan, 
and  Italy  principally,  but  is  grown  elsewhere.  It  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  thousands  of  years  and  is  called  the  "  domesticated 
silkworm."  Spacious,  well-ventilated  rooms  or  sheds  are  used  for 
the  work,  and  extreme  care  is  given  to  feeding  and  rearing  that  the 
best  quality  of  silk  may  be  obtained.  Practically  all  of  the  fine 
silk  fabrics  are  woven  of  silk  from  the  "  domesticated  "  variety. 


SILK  CLOTHING  49 

The  wild  or  uncultivated  species,  such  as  the  Tussah,  has  a  rougher 
fiber,  little  attention  is  given  to  the  worms,  and  the  cocoons  are 
gathered  from  the  trees  when  they  have  been  spun.  The  irregu- 
larity of  the  filament  as  found  on  pongee  is  characteristic  of  the 
wild  silks.  Silk  fiber  consists  of  two  substances,  the  actual  silk  or 
fibroin,  and  the  gum  or  sericin,  which  covers  it. 

Reeled  silk  is  the  filament  unwound  from  the  cocoon.  The 
best  silk  is  thus  prepared.  The  method  of  removing  it  is  simple, 
though  taking  delicate  and  skilled  handling.  The  cocoons  are  first 
soaked  in  boiling  water  to  loosen  the  gum.  They  are  later  immersed, 
a  few  at  a  time,  in  fairly  hot  water  held  in  a  specially  constructed 
basin.  The  imperfect  fiber  on  the  surface  is  laid  to  one  side  with 
all  defective  cocoons  and  the  remaining  ones  are  reeled  off  by 
catching  several  (four  to  six)  ends  of  filaments  on  a  small  brush 
made  of  twigs,  uniting  them  (this  is  easily  done  on  account  of  the 
gum),  attaching  them  to  a  reel,  which  is  directly  in  front  of  the 
basin,  revolving  the  reel  and  gradually  winding  the  silk  upon  it. 
The  filaments  come  off  easily,  making  a  long,  smooth  thread  (called 
"  singles  ")  full  of  silk  gum  and  therefore  rather  stiff  but  beautiful 
in  appearance.  Hand  reels  are  still  in  use  in  the  East,  but  are  apt 
to  give  imperfect  results.  The  steam  filatures  are  more  reliable, 
for  the  heat  of  the  water  can  be  regulated,  making  the  yarn  smooth, 
and  the  reels  are  run  by  power,  causing  a  more  even  winding. 
Large  quantities  of  raw  silk  come  to  the  United  States  in  the  reeled 
form.  If  the  silk  is  to  be  used  in  "  skein  dye "  it  goes  to  the 
throwster  to  be  twisted  or  "  thrown,"  so  as  to  hold  the  fibers  to- 
gether. This  is  the  sort  of  spinning  adapted  to  the  long  lustrous 
fibers  and  differs  from  the  methods  used  in  cotton  and  wool  yarn. 
Some  yarns  are  not  twisted  or  thrown  but  are  used  as  "  singles." 

In  addition  to  the  reeled  silk,  whether  domestic  or  wild,  there  is 
a  waste  product  which  consists  of  short  fibers  of  rough  silk  taken 
from  the  outside  of  the  cocoons  before  the  long  fiber  is  reeled  off; 
of  torn  or  broken  fibers  from  the  reels;  of  silk  from  imperfect 
cocoons,  or  cocoons  from  which  the  moth  has  escaped,  which  are 
difficult  to  reel ;  of  wastes  from  manufacturing  processes  and  of  silk 
shoddy  (clippings  from  new  and  old  woven  silk)  reduced  to  a 
fibrous  condition.  The  waste  or  floss  silk  is  prepared  for  weaving 
by  boiling  the  gum  out  of  it,  straightening,  cutting,  and  combing  it, 
4 


50  CLOTHING 

and  then  spinning  it  much  as  cotton  is  spun.  The  very  short  fibers 
may  be  carded  only  and  then  spun.  Such  silks  are  called  spun 
silk  or  schappe  in  distinction  from  the  reeled  silk,  and  are  excellent 
for  many  purposes.  The  best  kinds  are  used  in  woven  and  knitted 
fabrics  for  dress  goods,  stockings,  trimmings,  cheap  embroidery, 
knitting  silks,  dental  floss,  and  coverings  for  electric  wiring.  Spun 
silk  and  cotton  are  sometimes  woven  together  in  a  fabric  and  the 
former  is  also  used,  at  times,  to  give  fancy  effects  in  wool  dress 
goods.  Reeled  as  well  as  spun  silks  are  twisted  about  yarn  or  woven 
into  the  design  in  some  worsted  fabrics.  Filling  wastes,  torn  into 
short  lengths  and  dyed  in  dark  colors,  are  at  times  mixed  with 
wool  in  woolen  yarns  which  are  made  principally  of  shoddy,  thereby 
strengthening  the  yarn.  Thrown  Tussah  silk  is  used  in  insulations 
about  electric  wires  as  silk  is  a  poor  conductor  of  electricity.  The 
lowest  grades  of  wastes  do  not  come  to  this  country  at  all.  Spun 
silk  fibers,  being  short,  will  draw  apart  when  the  yarn  is  untwisted, 
but  reeled  silk  yarn  shows  a  continuous  filament. 

Although  the  United  States  grows  few  silkworms,  it  does  a 
large  business  in  throwing,  weaving  and  knit  goods,  and  in  knitting, 
sewing,  and  other  threads.  It  imports  great  quantities  of  raw  and 
considerable  spun  silk,  New  York  City  being  the  principal  market. 
Silks  from  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe  come  directly  to  New 
York,  but  Oriental  silk  comes  via  the  Pacific  coast.  The  ships  unload 
their  precious  cargoes  at  Vancouver,  Seattle,  or  San  Francisco,  and 
the  bales  are  carried  across  the  country  to  New  York  in  special 
trains.  The  great  value  of  these  "silk  specials "  gives  them  the 
ri.L'ht  of  way,  and  except  to  change  engines,  they  seldom  stop,  nor 
are  other  goods  usually  carried  on  the  same  train.  One  loaded 
train  is  often  worth  $2,000,000.  There  has  been  much  complaint 
of  late  concerning  thefts  of  silk.  With  the  fiber  so  costly  the  dis- 
appearance of  even  a  comparatively  small  package  becomes  serious. 
The  silk  mills  of  the  United  States  are  situated  principally  in  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  England.  They  excel  in 
plain  rather  than  in  fain -y  silks.  The  highest  priced  brocades,  em- 
broidered chiH'ons  and  novelty  silks  are  made  in  France  and  K up- 
land. The  best  raw  silk  comes  from  Italy,  but  during  the  war  the 
crop  was  much  reduced.  Japan  and  China,  beside  raw  silk,  send  us 
many  varieties  of  fabrics,  such  as  habutai,  shantung,  and  pongee. 


SILK  CLOTHING  51 

Pure  silk  is  costly,  for  an  enormous  number  of  cocoons  are  re- 
quired to  meet  the  demand.  The  growing  of  the  worm  takes 
extreme  care  and  crops  are  often  lost;  the  reeling  needs  delicate 
handling ;  the  raw  material  is  transported  from  great  distances,  and 
the  throwing  (twisting),  weaving,  dyeing,  and  finishing  add  to 
the  expense. 

Many  silk  materials  have  the  designs  printed  upon  them  instead 
of  being  woven  in — foulards,  chiffons,  and  ribbons  are  frequently 
printed,  and  often  in  elaborate  patterns.  This  may  be  done  in  the 
piece,  on  the  skein,  or  on  the  warp  before  weaving.  In  the  latter 
case  the  outline  of  the  design  is  softened  by  the  weaving  of  the 
filling.  Patterns  can  be  made  also  on  piece-dyed  goods  by  dis- 
charging the  color  with  chemicals  as  in  polka  dots  on  a  dark 
ground.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section  "  Dyeing/') 

The  thrown  yarn  prepared  for  warp  is  called  organzine  and  is 
twisted  in  a  special  manner  to  give  it  strength.  The  filling  yarn 
(tram)  is  usually  made  of  an  inferior  grade  of  silk  and  is  less 
twisted  than  the  organzine.  Silk  is  dyed  in  the  yarn  and  also  in 
the  piece,  the  former  being  the  usual  procedure.  Before  dyeing  the 
majority  of  silks  are  "  boiled  off  "  to  rid  them  of  gum  and  to  clean 
them.  In  this  process  weight  is  lost,  as  gum  represents  from  18 
to  22  per  cent.,  and  sometimes  even  higher,  of  the  weight  of  raw 
silk.  It  is  to  restore  this  loss  that  practices  have  become  common 
which,  while  adding  to  the  weight,  weaken  the  fiber.  If  a  "  pure 
dye"  silk  were  wanted  (one  to  which  no  weighting  is  added,  but 
which  after  "boiling  off"  is  given  a  dye  bath  only)  the  manufac- 
turer having  a  pound  of  silk  yarn  to  be  so  dyed  would  receive  it  back 
many  ounces  less  in  weight,  as  the  loss  of  gum  would  not  be  made 
up.  This  would  naturally  increase  the  price  of  the  woven  goods 
(perhaps  one-quarter  more,  according  to  the  loss  of  weight),  and 
the  consumer,  frequently  desiring  only  a  temporary  fabric  which 
will  wear  until  the  fashion  changes,  does  not  wish  to  pay  more 
than  she  has  been  accustomed  to  give  for  the  weighted  fabric. 
Formerly  sugar  or  other  harmless  substances  were  used  which  did 
not  weaken  the  silk,  but  at  the  present  time  tin  salts  are  largely 
employed  which  not  only  restore  the  lost  weight  but  add  heavily  to 
it,  cheapening  the  fabric  but  also  beginning  its  deterioration.  Some 
silks  have  all  of  the  gum  boiled  out  and  are  called  "  bright/'  Those 


52  CLOTHING 

on  which  the  greater  part  of  the  gum  remains  are  called  "  souple." 
The  United  States  uses  more  silk  than  other  nations,  for  its 
citizens  have  relatively  high  incomes,  and  everyone  loves  the  beauty 
and  the  shimmer  of  silk ;  so  the  demand  for  it  is  constantly  on  the  in- 
crease. All  classes  of  people  have  wanted  it,  and  as  the  call  has 
bee ii  largely  for  inexpensive  fabrics  it  has  become  customary  to  use 
methods  to  extend  the  supply  by  substitutions  and  adulterations. 
In  less  the  retail  house  can  help  her  there  is  no  "way  the  consumer 
can  know  pure  dye  silk  from  the  adulterated  varieties,  unless  she 
takes  a  sample  home  and  tests  it,  for  the  appearance  is  the  same 
and  the  price  does  not  always  indicate  value.  There  is  need  of 
honest  statements  about  the  quality  of  silk  for  sale  on  the  counters. 
The  buyer  could  perhaps  obtain  more  accurate  information  and 
give  it  to  the  sales  force  who  can  inform  those  who  ask  for  it.  This 
will  not  be  done,  however,  until  many  customers  ask  for  it.  The 
silk  of  long  ago,  even  the  taffeta,  was  remarkably  enduring,  and 
should  be,  for  silk  properties  are  of  the  best.  Pure  dye  silk,  while 
expensive,  repays  the  one  who  buys  it  by  its  long  service.  It  is  at 
present  found  more  frequently  in  piece-dyed  than  in  yarn-dyed 
fabrics.  Both  kinds  of  silk  are  needed,  but  there  should  be  some 
more  satisfactory  way  of  distinguishing  between  them  than  to  take 
a  sample  home  and  test  it.  The  thoughtful  consumer  during  this 
era  of  high  prices  wishes  to  buy  enduring  material,  fbr  rapidly 
changing  fashions  have  passed,  temporarily,  at  least.  In  order  to 
practice  thrift  in  the  household  it  is  necessary  to  buy  materials 
that  will  repay  one  for  the  money  and  time  spent  on  them.  If  silk 
is  desired  for  serviceable  gowns,  petticoats,  underclothing,  umbrella 
covers,  and  household  drapery,  thrift  requires  some  assurance  of 
reliability,  especially  when  good  prices  are  paid.  Trade-marked 
silks  are  increasing  in  number  which  is  a  distinct  advantage,  for 
gome  names  become  a  guarantee  of  worth,  helping  the  shopper  to 
buy  wisely.  To  pay  a  high  price  for  silk  and  the  charges  of  a  good 
dressmaker  and  then  have  the  silk  go  to  pieces  before  it  should  is 
disheartening  and  discourages  one  from  buying  this  material  unless 
one  has  some  assurance  of  quality. 

Properties  of  Silk. — Pure  silk  is  the  strongest  of  the  textile 
fibers  when  the  gum  has  not  been  boiled  off.  For  this  reason  it 
has  long  been  in  use  in  scientific  laboratories.  It  has  great  avidity 


SILK  CLOTHING  53 

for  moisture,  and  will  absorb  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 
This  extra  moisture  makes  the  silk  heavier,  therefore  conditioning 
houses  are  found  in  silk  centers  to  test  the  fiber  before  it  is  paid 
for,  to  see  if  it  contains  an  undue  amount  of  water  placed  there 
often  to  obtain,  money  unjustly.  Silk  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat, 
which  quality  makes  it  valuable  next  to  the  body  in  cold  weather, 
and  its  light  weight  and  smooth  softness  add  to  its  worth  for  gar- 
ments. It  takes  dye  easily,  and  when  the  best  dyes  are  used  the 
colors  are  fast,  but  the  process  is  difficult  and  expensive,  hence  less 
costly  methods  are  employed  with  less  satisfactory  results.  Silk 
has  luster,  the  filament  is  fine,  and  the  fabric  falls  in  graceful 
folds,  unless  especially  woven  into  stiff  brocades.  When  the  gum 
is  boiled  out,  it  becomes  very  soft  and  can  be  woven  into  ex- 
quisite materials.  It  sheds  the  dust  and  keeps  clean  for  a  long 
time,  giving  it  value  for  clothing.  Some  silks  can  be  laundered  and 
are  used  for  underwear  and  blouses,  but  very  hot  water  sometimes 
causes  yellowing  and  stiffening  unless  great  care  is  taken,  hence 
sterilization  in  the  laundry  is  not  as  easy  as  with  cotton.  It  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  electricity  which  causes  its  use  for  insulating 
electric  wires.  A  little  rustling  noise,  called  "  scroop,"  is  charac- 
teristic of  some  silks.  This  can  be  produced  artificially  and,  at 
times,  fashion  emphasizes  this  sound  in  petticoats  and  gowns. 
Silk  is  very  elastic  when  the  gum  is  still  in  it,  stretching  one- 
seventh  to  one-quarter  of  its  original  length ;  weighting  reduces  this. 

Leading  Silk  Materials. — Dress  goods,  upholstery  goods,  lin- 
ings, umbrella  covers,  ribbons,  velvets,  tie  silks,  knitted  underwear, 
sweaters,  gloves  and  scarfs,  hosiery,  trimmings,  nets,  laces,  sewing 
silks,  and  embroidery  and  knitting  silks  are  made  of  this  fiber.  The 
fabrics  range  from  the  thinnest  chiffons  to  heavy  brocades  and 
pile  goods.  Silk  is  used  combined  with  cotton  and  also  with  wool 
in  dress  fabrics.  We  rely  largely  on  our  own  country  for  our  silks, 
but  the  Orient  is  sending  an  increasing  product.  Until  the  market 
is  more  stable  the  silks  mentioned  below  are  being  made  as  needed 
and  not  in  large  quantities. 

Silks,  with  much  body  are  found  in  plush,  velvet,  .grosgrain, 
duvetyn  de  soie,  ottoman,  bengaline,  and  some  satins.  These  mate- 
rials are  often  combined  with  cotton  or  wool.  The  filling  threads 
in  grosgrain  are  often  heavily  weighted,  cheap  varieties  sometimes 


54  CLOTHING 

carrying  more  than  three  times  the  weight  of  silk.  Pile  goods  have 
the  substitute  material  on  the  back  and  wear  well  if  the  silk  face 
thickly  covers  the  backing.  Heavy  materials  of  pure  dye  silk  would 
be  very  high  in  price  and  out  of  the  reach  of  the  general  public, 
consequently,  corded  silk,  such  as  poplin,  ottoman,  and  grosgrain, 
have  cotton  or  worsted  imbedded  in  the  fabric  as  a  cord,  over  which 
the  silk  warp  passes  and  is  held  down  by  the  woof  or  filling.  The 
warp  in  these  materials  is  made  of  raw  silk  which  crosses  the 
•cord,  and  although  it  is  not  weighted,  it  is  not  always  strong  enough 
to  endure  the  friction  of  the  cord  and  breaks.  The  filling  is  apt  to 
be  weighted. 

Medium-weigh  t  silks  are  found  in  crepe  de  Chine,  crepe  meteor, 
and  Georgette  crepes,  China  silks,  light-weight  wash  silks,  foulard, 
messaline,  Louisine,  satins  of  many  kinds,  peau  de  soie,  charmeuse, 
surah,  taffeta,  Jersey  cloth,  and  some  of  the  eastern  silks.  These 
fabrics  are  enduring,  if  they  are  not  subjected  to  a  strain  for  which 
they  are  unfitted,  but  they  cannot  stand  every  variety  of  service.  It  is 
well  to  buy  them  at  a  reliable  house,  taking  the  advice  of  a  buyer 
or  salesman  who  can  be  depended  upon.  The  softer,  shimmering 
silks,  when  not  heavily  weighted,  wear  well  if  no  great  strain  is  put 
upon  them.  Crepes  are  duller  in  appearance,  but  more  enduring 
on  account  of  the  close  twist  in  the  yarn.  Those  used  are  some  of 
them  right-hand  and  some  left-hand,  and  when  the  fabric  is 
woven  and  finished  the  electricity  in  the  fiber  makes  the  yarn  crinkle 
slightly,  giving  the  well-known  crepe  effect,  for  one  kind  of 
yarn  draws  up  different  from  the  other.  In  preparing  for  weaving, 
the  yarns  twisted  one  way  are  dyed  slightly  so  that  if  a  thread 
breaks  it  can  be  united  to  the  other  end  of  its  own  thread,  otherwise 
a  bad  place  would  appear  in  the  finished  cloth.  Crepe  effects  are 
obtained  also  by  the  manner  of  weaving  or  by  combining  silk  with 
cotton  and  mercerizing  the  cotton  which  will  draw  up  and  produce 
a  cr6pon  effect.  Taffeta  silks  are  very  closely  woven  with  organzine 
for  the  warp  and  tram  for  the  woof.  The  tram  is  often  over- 
weighted, which  affects  the  wearing  quality.  Pure-dye  taffeta  silks 
(dyed  in  the  piece)  are  on  the  market,  however,  which  wear  excel- 
lently. Some  taffetas  are  unduly  stiff,  crease  easily,  and  if  over- 
weighted deteriorate  rapidly  in  the  folds.  Surah  silks  are  frequently 
weighted.  Crdpe  m6t6or,  China  silk,  wash  silk,  foulard,  charmeuse, 


SILK  CLOTHING  55 

and  eastern  silks  are  not  usually  weighted,  but  are  sometimes  un- 
enduring  owing  to  weak  construction. 

Light-weight  silks  are  found  in  chiffon,  chiffon  cloth,  gauze, 
maline,  mull,  mouseline  de  soie,  lace,  .net,  marquisette,  and  some 
Georgette  crepes.  When  made  of  a  good  quality,  pure-dye  silk  and 
taken  care  of,  they  will  give  good  service  for  more  dressy  wear,  but 
they  are  frequently  used  for  constant  wear  for  which  they  are  not 
fitted.  Many  of  these  lighter  fabrics,  made  for  effect  only,  are 
heavily  weighted  and  will  no't  endure.  Foulards  and  crepe  de 
Chines  may  be  light  in  weight,  yet  enduring,  but  it  is  often  hard  to 
distinguish  them  from  poorer  stock  unless  the  store  can  be  relied 
upon  for  honest  statement.  Even  then,  the  buyer  of  the  store  can- 
not always  know,  for  he  purchases  from  a  consignor  who  is  frequently 
ignorant  of  the  real  condition,  and  even  the  manufacturer  would 
have  to  refer  to  the  dyers  to  obtain  the  truth,  and  the  latter  have 
not  been  in  the  habit  of  testing  the  amount  of  weighting  given. 
If,  however,  women  wish  this  information  sufficiently  to  insist  on 
having  it,  there  would  be  an  effort  to  obtain  the  facts.  Already 
there  is  distinct  improvement  over  the  past  in  the  number  of  avail- 
able pure-dye  silks.  It  is,  however,  wise  to  put  good-sized  dress 
shields  under  the  arms  in  all  silk  gowns  to  keep  the  silk  from 
rotting  from  perspiration,  as  weighted  silks  are  common. 

Knitted  silk  stockings,  gloves,  scarfs,  sweaters,  and  dress  goods 
may  wear  satisfactorily  if  the  silk  is  strong  and  unweighted.  Fiber 
or  artificial  silks  are  used  with  much  success  for  the  same  purposes. 
Hosiery  made  of  the  best  reeled  silk,  closely  knitted,  is  very  ex- 
pensive, but  wears  well.  Many  silk  stockings  are  made  from  yarn 
spun  from  waste  or  floss  silk  which  decreases  the  expense,  and  may 
be  enduring  if  they  are  not  too  thin.  Weighting  in  stockings  makes 
a  very  poor  article,  for  perspiration  will  cause  the  silk  to  deteriorate 
rapidly.  (See  Chapter  VI,  section  "Knit  Goods  and  Hosiery.") 
It  is  never  wise  to  buy  stockings,  sweaters,  and  dress  goods  of  weak 
silk,  for  it  does  not  pay  for  the  outlay  in  money. 

Silk  knitted  underwear  may  be  very  enduring,  but  much  of  it  is 
not.  It  may  be  made  of  spun  silk,  cost  less  than  the  reeled,  and 
still  be  strong.  The  high  price  has  stood  in  the  way  of  the  manu- 
facturer of  much  good  reeled  silk  underwear,  for  it  is  not  in  de- 
mand, yet  it  may  be  an  excellent  investment.  The  public  has  not 


56  CLOTHING 

known  how  to  judge  of  the  real  value  and  has  been  attracted  by  the 
cheaper  garments.  The  mass  of  silk  chemises,  camisoles,  and 
knickerbockers  on  the  market  are  not  worth  buying.  They  please 
the  taste  for  luxury  and  are  bought  in  quantities  to  take  the  place 
of  muslin  garments.  Lace-trimmed,  billowy,  flimsy  articles  with 
unenduring  ribbons  and  embroidery  are  for  sale  at  low  prices. 
Underwear  of  this  kind  is  an  extravagance,  for  it  is  not  worth  the 
amount  paid  for  it,  and  no  one  should  feel  satisfied  to  waste  money 
on  personal  adornment.  It  is  used  with  the  sheerest  waists  over  it 
and  little  under  it  but  the  flesh,  and  is  immodest  and  vulgar,  tend- 
ing to  the  lowering  of  high  standards  of  life.  This  insufficient 
covering,  when  worn  in  cold  weather,  depresses  the  bodily  tempera- 
ture below  the  normal  and  gradually  undermines  health.  Such 
clothing  habits  become  important  questions  for  the  life  and  vigor 
of  the  coming  generation.  (See  Chapter  VII,  section  "Keeping 
Warm.'')  Good  health  requires  the  preservation  of  energy  through 
adequate  clothing  that  it  may  be  used  for  more  important  things 
than  solely  making  one's  self  attractive  through  appealing  to  low 
ideals.  The  laundry  costs  for  cheap  garments  are  high,  and  repairs, 
if  made  at  all,  must  be  well-nigh  incessant  <to  keep  so  much  weak 
decoration  and  poor  silk  in  decent  condition.  It  is  possible  to  have 
a  good  quality  of  washable  silk,  such  as  crepe  de  Chine  or  glove 
silk  made  into  simple  garments  which  will  wear  if  they  are 
carefully  laundered. 

Union  Goods. — Silk  and  wool,  and  silk  and  cotton  are  found  in 
admixture  in  fabrics  and  when  well  constructed  are  satisfactory  in 
wear.  A  heavy  cord  of  cotton  or  worsted  inserted  in  the  filling  of 
silk  fabrics,  as  in  poplins,  may  rub  against  the  warp  threads  wear- 
ing them  out  quickly  unless  the  yarn  is  strong  and  closely  inserted, 
making  a  mass  against  which  the  friction  of  the  cord  has  little 
effect.  Some  fabrics  are  loosely  constructed,  so  that  the  silk  warp 
shifts  and  is  worn  out  by  the  cord.  A  silk  poplin  with  a  cotton  or 
worsted  cord  may  be  a  satisfactory  material  if  well  woven. 

Spool  Silk. — Sewing  and  machine  twists;  crochet,  knitting, 
darning,  and  embroidery  silk;  dental  floss  and  surgeon's  silk  an- 
in  various  grades.  The  first  two  an-  similar  to  tram,  Init.  arc 
twi.-t<-»l  in  their  first  stages.  Sewing  silk  has  two  strand- 
twisted  together  in  the  opposite  <lhv<-ti«»n  From  the  first  twist  (called 


SILK  CLOTHING  57 

two-ply).  Machine  twist  has  three  strands  twisted  together  and  is 
called  three-ply.  Large  amounts  of  these  threads  are  made  in  the 
United  States.  Some  of  them  are  strong,  but  other  varieties  will 
not  stand  much  strain.  The  low  price  at  which  such  threads  are 
sold  and  the  fact  that  all  grades  of  one  kind  usually  are  sold  at 
the  same  price  makes  the  best  condition  of  manufacture  difficult. 

Finishing  of  Silk. — Many  varieties  of  finishes  are  used  to  give 
differing  effects  to  silk  fabrics.  Stretching  the  yarn  will  soften  it 
and  dressing  will  give  it  stiffness.  Silk  in  the  piece  can  be  polished, 
giving  it  a  brilliant  appearance.  If  silk  is  too  stiff  and  papery,  after 
gumming,  it  can  be  softened  with  a  special  breaker  which  does  not 
remove  the  dressing.  It  is  the  cheaper  grade  of  silk  fabric  where 
much  dressing  is  used  to  thicken  it,  thus  taking  the  place  of  silk, 
which  needs  this  special  softening  finisher.  Silk  can  also  be  soft- 
ened by  heat  and  pressure  with  calenders,  cylinders,  and  presses; 
treatment  which  is  often  given  to  better  class  goods  containing 
ample  silk.  There  are  also  smoothing  and  lustering  machines  to 
give  finish  and  feel  to  the  goods.  Gas  singeing  is  used  on  fabrics 
that  have  too  much  fluff  on  the  surface,  and  the  rustling  noise 
called  "  scroop  "  can  be  imparted  by  acids,  if  it  is  not  present  in  the 
silk.  Special  pressure  with  engraved  rollers,  running  unevenly, 
will  give  the  moire  look ;  smooth  pressure  on  velvet  produces  panne 
velvet  and  printing  is  used  largely  for  decorative  effects.  Printing 
may  be  done  on  the  yarn,  as  in  some  ribbons  which  thus  have  a 
design  with  a  soft  outline,  or  on  the  piece,  as  in  foulards  which 
show  the  figure  distinctly. 

Adulterations  and  Substitutions- — The  demand  for  silks  at 
prices  which  the  public  can  pay  and  the  high  price  necessary  for 
those  with  pure  dye  have  led  to  various  ways  of  increasing  the 
supply  and  lowering  the  price.  Artificial  silks  are  made  by  the 
chemical  treatment  of  cellulose,  wood  waste,  pulp,  or  gelatine. 
These  materials  have  the  appearance  of  silk  and  often  wear  fairly 
well,  but  have  not  such  characteristics  of  silk  as  elasticity  or 
strength  when  wet.  They  are  being  constantly  improved,  however, 
and  are  used  in  braids,  ribbons,  upholstery,  millinery  materials, 
drapery,  hosiery,  sweaters,  scarfs,  and  dress  goods.  There  are  sev- 
eral methods  of  making  artificial  silks,  the  one  principally  in  use 
in  the  United  Stages  being  called  the  "  Viscose."  Cotton  is  used 


58  CLOTHING 

largely  as  a  substitute  for  silk,  being  found  in  brocades,  velvets, 
satins,  and  poplins.  The  cotton  is  found  in  the  backing  or  in 
cords  over  which  the  silk  warp  passes.  It  is  also  used  one  way  of 
the  goods,  or  in  alternation  with  the  silk  which  it  can  be  made  to 
resemble  closely.  Such  union  material  is  often  stronger  than  if  the 
fabric  were  made  of  heavily  weighted  silk.  Sea  Island  or  other 
long-staple  cotton,  closely  twisted  with  all  the  soft  fluffy  fiber  re- 
moved by  gassing,  looks  much  like  silk,  and  is  found  in  lisle-thread 
stockings,  in  gloves,  in  weaves  with  a  special  finish,  as  in  silkoline, 
and  woven  in  a  satin  pattern  and  given  the  required  finish,  as  in 
sateen.  The  mercerization  of  cotton  yarns  gives  them  a  translucent 
effect  which  resembles  the  light  of  silk;  such  yarns  can  be  woven 
by  themselves  or  in  combination  with  silk  and  will  scarcely  be  de- 
tected in  the  cloth.  (See  Chapter  III,  section  "Cotton  Finishing/') 
With  too  much  cotton  present,  however,  the  fabric  will  soil  and 
cru^h  more  quickly  than  when  silk  alone  is  used. 

The  cheapening  of  silk  becomes  more  serious  when  the  yarn  is 
over-weighted  with  tin  salts,  for  their  deterioration  soon  begins. 
Such  fabrics  can  not  be  allowed  to  remain  long  on  the  counters  or 
they  will  show  signs  of  weakness.  They  must  be  sold  as  quickly  as 
possible,  even  if  they  have  to  be  greatly  reduced  in  price.  In  the 
home  they  must  be  made  up  immediately,  for  they  are  on  the  road 
to  ruin.  Weighted  silk  laid  away  will  slit  and  crumble  and  will  do 
the  same  thing  if  it  is  worn.  Perspiration  will  cause  rapid  decay, 
as  will  also  salt  water  or  even  tears.  At  the  sea  shore  parasols  as 
well  as  gowns  will  often  rot  quickly.  Rapid  changes  of  fashion  have 
hidden  the  seriousness  of  these  facts  from  many  consumers  who 
wore  their  gowns  for  a  season  only,  but  they  have  been  regarded  as 
a  tragedy  by  people  with  small  incomes  who  have  tried  to  get  the 
worth  of  their  money. 

Silks  are  usually  weighted  in  the  yarn  after  throwing  and  boil- 
ing off  and  just  before  dyeing.  The  tram  or  filling  yarn  is  more  apt 
to  be  heavily  weighted  than  the  warp  -or  organzine ;  sometimes  the 
latter  is  not  weighted  at  all.  It  is  usually  heaviest  in  the  silks  with 
much  body,  for  thereby  the  price  is  lowered.  Reeled  silks  are  more 
likely  to  be  weighted  than  spun  silks,  for  the  latter  are  so  much 
more  bulky  that  weighting  increases  the  size  unduly,  but  the  latter 
are  sometimes  treated  to  give  them  a  richer  feel,  as  in  neck  scarfs 


SILK  CLOTHING  59 

and  mufflers.  The  process  of  weighting  is  somewhat  as  follows: 
Silk  fiber  has  an  avidity  for  moisture  and  an  affinity  for  some 
substances  when  in  solution.  In  boiling  off  18  to  22  per  cent,  (or 
even  more)  of  weight  is  lost,  and  it  has  always  been  customary  to 
use  various  methods  to  restore  this,  but  originally  the  substances 
added  were  not  destructive.  The  present  use  of  metallic  tin  dis- 
solved in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  has  increased,  for  it  can  be  used 
even  when  the  most  delicate  colors  are  to  be  dyed.  Iron  has  been 
used  for  weighting  black  silks,  but  lately  tin  is  used  almost  exclu- 
sively. After  the  gum  has  been  boiled  off  the  yarn  is  given  a  bath 
of  the  tin  solution.  It  is  then  washed  and  dried,  but  this  process 
can  be,  and  often  is,  repeated  until  the  yarn  is  carrying  a  very  heavy 
weight  of  tin.  A  slight  use  of  weighting  will  not  usually  injure 
the  fiber,  but  this  cannot  be  relied  upon,  for  it  sometimes  happens 
that  even  a  slight  application  will  cause  weakness.  Careless  methods 
will  often  cause  deterioration  even  when  the  weight  is  not  in  excess. 
It  is  also  true  that  care  in  the  weighting  has  been  followed  by  much 
endurance,  even  in  a  heavily-weighted  material.  It  becomes  diffi- 
cult, therefore,  to  judge  of  the  wear  from  merely  knowing  the 
amount  of  the  weighting.  It  would  be  well  if  dyers  tested  the 
amount  of  weight  lost  in  boiling  off  thrown  silk  and  then  merely 
restored  this  weight,  whereas  often  it  is  increased  three  or  even 
four  times.  After  the  weighting  the  silk  is  ready  to  be  dyed.  A 
silk  heavily  weighted  with  tin  is  called  "  dynamited/'  A  pure-dye 
silk  can  be  laid  away  for  a  hundred  years  or  more  without  deteriora- 
tion, but  weighted  silks  begin  to  disintegrate  as  soon  as  the  process 
is  completed. 

Tests  for  Silk. — Simple  tests  of  the  value  of  a  fabric  can  be 
made  in  the  home  which  help  to  determine  the  wisdom  of  purchase. 
Pure-dye  and  weighted  silks  burn  in  the  manner  described  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter,  under  section  "  Pure-dye  and  Weighted  Silk." 

If  silk  is  loosely  woven,  so  that  the  threads  easily  push  aside,  it 
should  not  be  made  up  in  a  way  to  have  any  drag  on  the  fabric,  as 
in  tight  sleeves  and  tight  waists,  for  it  is  apt  to  fray  as  the  threads 
are  pulled  to  one  side.  Even  if  such  silks  are  unweighted,  they  will 
endure  better  if  draped  lightly.  To  test  for  ability  to  stand  this 
strain  when  a  solidly-woven  material  is  required,  place  a  needle  in 
a  double  fold  of  the  silk  and  draw  the  fabric  away  from  it  to  see  if 


60  CLOTHING 

the  threads  will  stand  such  pressure.  Placing  the  finger-nail 
against  the  yarn  warp  way  and  then  woof  way  will  also  show  tin- 
possible  shifting  of  threads  which  may  mean  wear  in  a  seam.  An- 
other method  is  to  twist  a  corner  of  the  silk  tightly  and  then  stretch 
it  out  smoothly  and  look  through  it  to  see  what  the  effect  has  been 
on  the  threads.  Silks  are  made  for  many  purposes  and  will  not 
all  stand  the  same  kind  of  wear.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  imper- 
fection if  a  silk  intended  for  soft  folds  is  found  not  to  stand  heavy 
service.  Too  stiff  a  silk  will  often  crease  and  cut ;  if  heavily  weighted 
at  the  same  time  it  will  soon  break  in  the  creases.  Taffetas  are 
sometimes  stiffened  artificially,  and  if  also  weighted  unduly  will 
soon  wear  out. 

Some  varieties  of  silk  will  spot,  as  is  the  case  with  pongee,  and 
should  be  sponged  before  making  up,  if  they  have  not  been  so 
treated  at  the  factory,  as  any  sprinkling  with  water  may  ruin  the 
appearance  of  the  gown.  It  is  well  to  test  a  silk  before  buying  it  to 
see  if  it  spots. 

Silk  will  hold  its  color  well  if  good  dyes  are  used  and  care  is 
taken  in  the  process,  but  the  difficulties  and  expense  incident  to 
obtaining  the  best  results  bring  to  the  retail  market  many  silks 
which  will  fade.  A  fast  alizarine  pure  dye  will  cost  about  six  times 
as  much  as  an  ordinary  pure  dye  per  pound.  This  difference  will 
be  a  considerable  item  in  the  price  per  yard  of  the  material,  conse- 
quently, the  former  is  not  much  in  use  in  women's  dress  goods.  It 
is  well  to  try  the  effect  of  air  and  light  on  the  color  of  a  sample  of 
silk  before  buying  it  (See  Chapter  VIII,  section  "  Testing.") 

A  cord  inserted  in  alternation  with  finer  yarn  is  frequently  seen 
in  wash  silks,  but  they  are  apt  to  wear  alongside  of  the  cord.  Plain 
fabrics  wear  better,  but  the  cord  is  attractive.  If  a  silk  which 
will  launder  is  wanted  it  is  well  to  try  the  effect  of  soap  ;m<I 
water  on  a  small  piece  before  buying  jt.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section 
"  Home  Laundering.") 

Washing  of  Silk. — Silk  should  be  washed  in  water  that  is  not 
too  hot,  and  ironed  with  a  fairly  cool  iron.  Liberty  silks,  satin, 
taffeta,  peau  de  soie,  crepe  de  Chine,  and  other  underwear  silks  will 
wash  excellently  if  care  is  taken.  Prepare  a  basin  of  warm,  not 
hot,  water  with  some  white  soap  in  lather  and  soak  the  silk  for  a 
very  short  time,  rubbing  it  lightly  if  necessary.  Lay  it  on  a  smooth 


SILK  CLOTHING  61 

surface  and  take  off  any  dirty  marks  with  a  soft  brush  or  piece  of 
cloth.  Rinse  in  clear  water.  Press  the  water  out  between  two  folds 
of  cloth,  and  iron  between  two  folds  also.  Some  silks  will  stiffen  if 
care  is  not  taken  in  pressing.  If  stiffness  is  needed,  put  a  few  drops 
of  vinegar  in  the  rinsing  water.  Chiffon  in  good  quality  and  in 
light  colors  can  be  washed  readily  and  successfully.  Plenty  of 
warm  water  should  be  used,  in  which  a  little  borax  is  dissolved. 
Do  not  rub  soap  on  the  silk,  but  make  a  solution  of  pure  white 
soap.  The  chiffon  can  be  gently  passed  through  the  hands  and 
the  dirt  squeezed  out.  It  can  then  be  rinsed  in  clear  water.  The 
material  should  be  shaken  gently  and  dried  by  pinning  down  on  a 
flat  surface  on  which  a  clean  piece  of  cotton  cloth  is  spread.  Plenty 
of  pins  should  be  used  to  keep  the  material  in  shape.  Sponging 
grosgrain  silk  with  coffee  will  often  take  out  greasy  marks.  Strain 
the  coffee  through  muslin,  sponge  the  silk  on  the  right  side,  and 
iron  on  the  wrong  side  when  partially  dry.  Small  spots  of  mud  on 
silk  can  usually  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  with  a  piece  of  flannel,  larger 
spots  are  helped  by  lightly  rubbing  with  alcohol.  To  renovate 
black  silk  in  the  piece,  sponge  it  with  alcohol  and  then  with  potato 
water,  and  wind  the  silk  around  a  roller  without  ironing  it.  To  pre- 
pare potato  water  slice  a  good-sized  potato,  then  pour  over  it  a  pint 
of  warm  water,  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  a  time. 

How  to  Tell  Textile  Materials.4— Pure-dye  and  Weighted 
Silk. — Pure-dye  silk,  whether  fabric  or  thread,  when  burned,  goes 
out  leaving  a  small,  crispy  coal,  or  ash,  at  the  end  of  the  burned 
place.  If  weighted  with  sugar  (many  years  ago  sugar  weighting 
was  largely  used  with  light  colorings)  a  much  larger  ash  remains, 
after  the  fashion  in  which  sugar  will  boil  up  when  it  falls  on  the 
stove.  If  weighted  with  iron  (largely  used  with  blacks)  a  soft,  red- 
dish ash  remains  in  which  the  fire  glows  for  a  few  moments  before 
going  out.  If  weighted  with  tin,  a  firm,  black  ash  remains  behind 
in  the  semblance  of  the  cloth  or  thread,  this  remainder  being  partly 
the  ash  of  the  silk,  but  mostly  the  mineral  adulterant. 

4  The  following  valuable  suggestions  have  been  compiled  for  this  book 
by  Mr.  James  Chittick,  of  New  York,  Consulting  Textile  Specialist  and  lec- 
turer at  Columbia  University.  Mr.  Chittick  is  one  of  the  best  known  textile 
experts  in  the  United  States  on  silks,  woolens,  cottons,  linens,  velvets  and 
plushes.  His  Book,  "Silk  Manufacturing  and  Its  Problems,"  is  a  standard 
reference  book  in  the  trade. 


62  CLOTHING 

Artificial  Silk  and  Natural  Silk. — Artificial  silk  being  almost 
always  made  from  cellulose  (cotton,  wood  fiber,  etc.)  burns  much 
like  vegetable  fiber.  Natural  silk  burns  as  already  explained. 

Spun  Silk  and  Reeled  Silk. — Spun  silk  is  made  from  waste  silk 
materials  reduced  to  relatively  short  fibers  and  then  twisted,  as  a 
cotton  yarn  might  be.  When  untwisted,  the  fibers  can  be  drawn 
apart.  In  reeled  silk  the  fibers  run  continuously  and  cannot  be  so 
separated  without  breaking  them. 

Spun  Silk  and  Cotton. — Distinguish  by  burning. 

Spun  Silk  and  Wool. — Wool  is  crinkly;  spun  silk  smooth  and 
shiny.  Hard-twisted  spun  silk,  when  untwisted,  looks  crinkly  like 
fine  wool.  If  wet  out,  spun  silk  becomes  straight  again;  wool 
remains  crinkly. 

Raw  SUk  and  Thrown  Silk. — Raw  silk  is  a  thread  composed  of 
silk  fibers  as  reeled  from  the  cocoons  sticking  together  by  their 
natural  gum,  and  without  twist.  The  thread  looks  solid  before 
dyeing,  though  after  dyeing  (and  it  cannot  be  dyed  in  the  skein)  it 
opens  up  into  its  original  fine  filaments.  Thrown  silk  is  raw  silk 
threads  in  combination,  twisted  in  various  ways,  making  organzine, 
tram,  etc.  Any  such  silk  with  twist  in  it  (except  spun  silk)  is 
thrown  silk. 

Ordinary  Silk  and  Tussah. — Tussah  is  the  fiber  produced  by 
the  wild  silkworm.  Originally  of  a  brown  color. 

Tussah  is  harsher  in  touch,  and  the  individual  fibers  are  much 
coarser,  being  about  twice  as  coarse  as  the  fibers  of  cultivated  silk. 
It  usually  has  a  good  luster  and  firmness.  Under  a  powerful  micro- 
scope Tussah  fibers  look  flat  and  ribbon-like,  while  cultivated  silk 
fibers  are  round  and  glassy. 

Cotton,  Mercerized  and  Unmercerized. — Mercerizing  is  the 
treating  of  cotton  under  tension  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali. 
The  mercerized  cotton  is  silkier  in  appearance.  Under  the  micro- 
scope the  fibers  of  cotton  appear  to  be  twisted  and  ribbon-like. 
Mercerizing  changes  the  fibers  so  that  they  then  present  a  round, 
rod-like,  glassy  appearance. 

Cotton  and  Linen. — Cotton  fibers  in  fabrics  are  of  uniform 
thickness,  and  reasonably  uniform  length.  Linen  fibers  vary  greatly 
in  thickness,  and  also  in  length,  and  are  always  much  longer  than 
cotton.  Abrupt  changes  in  the  thickness  of  the  fibers  will  be  found 


SILK  CLOTHING  63 

in  linen  yarns  (owing  to  the  hackling  or  splitting  of  the  fibers), 
but  in  cotton  yarn  variations  in  thickness  will  be  of  a  more  gradual 
character.  Examine  an  all-linen  handkerchief  and  a  piece  of  cot- 
ton shirting  against  the  light,  and  these  differences  will  be  apparent. 
To  Tell  Per  Cent,  of  Cotton  in  Mixed  Fabrics. — For  cotton  and 
wool,  or  cotton  and  silk,  weigh  accurately  a  small  sample,  perhaps 
three  or  four  inches  square,  and  boil  for  five  or  ten  minutes  in  a 
small  vessel  of  water  in  which  a  stick  of  caustic  potash  has  been 
dissolved.  The  potash  destroys  the  animal  fiber.  Remove  sample, 
wash  thoroughly,  dry,  and  hang  up  until  it  returns  to  normal  mois- 
ture. Weigh  again,  and  add  3  per  cent,  (for  loss  in  boiling)  to  the 
weight.  This  corrected  weight  is  vegetable  fiber,  and  the  difference 
is  animal  fiber.  Keep  the  caustic  potash  away  from  hands 
and  clothing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  reasons  for  the  present  high  price  of  silk. 

2.  What  are  the  leading  uses  of  silk  ?    Classify  the  various  silk  fabrics. 

3.  What  are  the  properties  of  silk  and  what  relation  have  these  qualities 

to  endurance  and  value? 

4.  What  are  the  causes  for  the  weakness  of  silk? 

5.  What  is  silk  weighting,  how  applied,  and  what  testa  can  be  used  to 

show  the  condition  of  silk  or  indicate  ita  union  with  other  fibers? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Discuss  the  economic  reliance  of  the  United  States  upon  the  silk-raising 

countries  of  the  world,  with  particular  regard  to  present  conditions 
of  production. 

2.  Study  the  growth  of  the  silkworm,  primitive  as  well  as  modern  methods 

of  reeling  silk  used  in  the  East,  and  silk  throwing  in  the  United  States. 

3.  Consider  modern  methods  of  weaving  and  applying  color  and  design, 

with  their  effect  on  beauty,  price  and  endurance. 


CHAPTER  V 

LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

The  Situation. — Linen  is  primarily  the  textile  for  household 
and  hospital  service  and  for  certain  special  uses  which  can  be  met 
best  by  its  peculiar  properties.  The  war  has  had  a  serious  effect  on 
its  production  and  manufacture,  for  the  European  nations  engaged 
in  the  conflict  were  those  that  led  in  its  growth  and  conversion  into 
cloth.  Linen  has  been  virtually  off  the  market  as  far  as  impor- 
tations into  the  United  States  of  household  linens  and  dress  goods 
are  concerned.  Hence,  cotton  took  the  place  of  linen  for  towel- 
ling, table  cloths,  and  handkerchiefs,  but  it  is  lacking  in  the 
qualities  which  have  made  linen  so  desirable  for  household  use. 
Cotton,  too,  is  scarce,  and  the  price  of  mercerized  table  cloth  made 
of  it  is  as  high  as  was  the  linen  before  the  war.  Ramie  fiber  comes 
the  nearest  to  linen  in  its  qualities,  but  could  not  always  be  pro- 
cured. Hemp  was  frequently  used  in  combination  with  flax. 

The  flax  of  Belgium  has  been  the  best  for  fine  linen,  for  it  is 
grown  with  great  care  and  retted  (rotted)  in  the  waters  of  the  Lys 
to  remove  the  wood  and  release  the  fiber.  These  waters  are  espe- 
cially suitable  for  this  purpose,  and  the  fiber  is  soft,  fine,  and  strong. 
Other  countries  beside  the  United  States  have  relied  largely  on 
Belgium  for  their  fine  yarns  with  which  to  weave  the  best  table 
linens  and  towelling.  Ireland  which  is  a  center  of  the  manufac- 
turing industry,  grows  its  own  flax  to  some  extent,  but  it  does  not 
equal  the  beauty  and  fineness  of  the  Belgian  product  and  cannot 
compete  with  the  price  of  Russian  flax.  England  and  France  grew 
little,  but  relied  largely  on  Belgium  for  yarns.  Russia  provided 
huge  amounts  of  the  fiber  for  these  countries  as  well  as  for  its  own 
use,  but  it  is  now  completely  crippled.  In  the  very  section  around 
Courtrai,  Belgium,  where  flows  the  Lys,  on  whose  banks  stacks  of 
golden  flax  awaited  retting,  came  the  German  army.  The  fertile 
flax  fields  were  trampled  down  and  became  "  No  Man's  Land." 
The  homes  of  the  thrifty  spinners  of  yarns  and  weavers  of  (im- 
cloths  were  destroyed.  The  machinery  of  the  scutching,  spinning, 
64 


LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING.  AND  HOUSEHOLD  65 

and  weaving  mills,  which  provided  the  nations  with  the  finest  of 
linen,  were  taken  by  the  enemy  or  destroyed.  The  stores  of  fine 
linen  were  looted.  It  may  be  many  years  before  flax  will  be  pro- 
duced again  in  its  perfection  in  Belgium.  In  order  to  meet  the 
shortage  of  linen,  England  increased  her  acreage  during  the  war. 
The  possibilities  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Empire  for  flax  cultiva- 
tion are  being  studied.  Ireland,  too,  has  increased  her  acreage 
under  cultivation,  and  Canada  has  been  experimenting  with  the 
growing  of  it  there.  Russia  was  depended  upon  for  the  coarser 
flax  and  the  Riga  seeds  were  considered  the  best  for  planting,  even 
in  other  countries.  On  account  of  the  unsettled  condition  of  the 
country,  agriculture  has  been  almost  destroyed.1 

The  Industry. — The  flax  plant  is  an  annual  grown  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  but  especially  cultivated  in  a  few  countries.  It 
has  an  erect,  slight,  willowy  stem  with  a  small  pinkish  or  bright 
blue  flower.  The  fields  with  the  bending  flax  are  attractive,  but 
require  great  care  to  bring  the  crop  to  perfection.  Belgium  has 
grown  the  best  flax ;  Russia  has  had  the  largest  crops,  and  France, 
Ireland,  Holland  and  other  European  countries  produce  in  smaller 
quantities.  The  crop  grows  like  wheat,  and  is  usually  pulled  up  by  the 
roots.  It  is  dried,  tied  in  bundles,  and  sunk  in  water — in  a  river, 
as  in  the  Lys  in  Belgium,  or  in  a  stagnant  pool,  as  in  Ireland,  or 
left  on  the  field  for  dew  retting,  as  in  many  parts  of  Russia.  The 
object  is  to  rot  (ret)  off  the  woody  parts  of  the  stem  that  the  fiber 
may  be  released.  Cleaning,  combing  (hackling),  laying  the  fibers 
in  order,  and  spinning  follow.  Flax  preparation  requires  special 
machinery,  which  is  expensive.  Large  amounts  of  dirt  and  wood 
must  be  cleared  away  and  in  combing  the  fibers  careless  work  will 
reduce  them  to  tow  or  broken  pieces,  whereas  the  object  is  to  obtain 
as  much  long  fiber  or  line  as  possible  with  the  minimum  of  tow. 
The  combs  or  wires  in  the  hackling  process  gradually  become  finer, 
for  flax  fiber  will  subdivide  many  times.  The  spinning  or  twisting 
follows  the  preparatory  process,  both  wet  and  dry  methods  being 
used.  The  spinning  of  the  line  is  said  to  cost  four  times  as  much  as 
does  the  spinning  of  cotton.  The  weaving  is  simple,  except  in  dam- 
ask, which  requires  an  elaborate  harness,  such  as  in  the  Jacquard,  or 
in  other  looms,  capable  of  dealing  with  many  changes  of  pattern. 

The  finish  is  important  to  the  appearance  of  the  linen  and 

1  Spinner  and  Weaver.     Leipzig,  1921. 
5 


66  CLOTHING 

consists  principally  in  bleaching,  dressing,  pressing,  and  beetling. 
The  latter  process  is  the  bringing  out  of  luster  by  having  the  goods 
subjected  to  the  action  of  many  hammers  on  a  cylinder.  In  the 
past,  bleaching  was  done  on  the  grass,  but  chemical  bleaches  are 
now  largely  used.  They  hasten  the  process,  but  experience  has 
proved  that  linen  whitened  by  chemicals  is  not  as  strong  as  if  the 
old  grass  method  were  used.  One  difficulty  with  the  chemical 
bleaching  is  leaving  the  fabric  too  long  in  the  bath,  which  destroys 
the  fiber.  Crofting  (laying  on  the  grass)  is  harmless,  even  if  the 
cloth  is  long  exposed.  The  finest  Irish  linen  is  woven  of  half- 
bleached  yarn.  It  is  then  crofted  for  six  weeks  or  two  months.  It 
is  impossible  now  to  bleach  all  goods  by  crofting,  and  the  chemical 
methods  have  become  the  only  practical  ones  for  medium-priced 
goods.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  way  materials  are  bleached 
by  chemicals;  when  the  chemicals  are  too  strong,  and  the  work 
is  done  hastily,  the  fiber  is  likely  to  be  greatly  weakened.  Many  of 
the  best  goods  are  half  crofted  and  half  chemically  bleached,  thus 
minimizing  the  injury  to  the  fiber.  There  are  several  grades  in 
linen  bleaching — quarter,  half,  three-quarters,  and  full  bleach. 
These  terms  are  not  always  used,  but  the  idea  is  the  same.  The 
fuller  the  bleach,  the  weaker  the  fibers  become,  but  the  appearance 
of  the  cloth  is  improved.  Much  weight  is  lost  in  bleaching ;  in  full 
bleach  20  per  cent,  is  lost.  The  expense  of  the  linen  per  yard  in- 
creases with  the  amount  of  bleaching.  Many  housekeepers  prefer 
to  buy  their  household  linen  unbleached,  and  complete  the  bleach- 
ing themselves.  This  is  easy  to  do  if  a  garden  space  is  available, 
where  the  linen  can  remain  on  the  grass  for  some  time.  If  the  cloth 
is  in  use  after  each  washing,  it  is  well  to  expose  it  to  the  sunshine 
and  air,  and  gradually  whiten  it.  A  little  borax  in  the  washing 
water  and  a  few  times  on  the  grass  will  bring  good  results.  The 
housekeeper  thus  saves  her  money,  and  has  stronger  linen.  The 
care  of  the  linen  after  it  is  bought  is  also  a  factor  in  its  life.  Mild 
soaps,  plenty  of  water  (not  too  hot),  and  little,  if  any,  starch  are 
needed.  The  wringer  is  bad  for  starched  linen.  Ironing  should 
be  done  when  the  linen  is  damp  and  with  not  too  hot  an  iron ; 
continuing  the  pressure  back  and  forth  over  the  goods  will 
hrinir  out  the  luster  in  good  cloths.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section 
"  Home  Laundering/') 


LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD  67 

Countries  Producing. — Irish  linen  has  always  had  a  high  repu- 
tation, being  noted  for  its  snow  whiteness,  its  simple  patterns,  and 
its  endurance.  Much  of  the  finer  Irish  linen  is  still  grass  bleached, 
and  some  of  it  is  hand  woven  in  the  better  grades  of  damask.  The 
noted  old  firms  continue  to  keep  their  reputation  for  honest  linen. 
The  yarns  for  the  finer  damasks  have  come  largely  from  Belgium, 
as  the  quality  of  fiber  is  better  than  is  grown  in  Ireland.  Large 
quantities  of  flax  have  been  imported  from  Eussia.  The  United 
States  buys  much  medium-priced  linen  from  Ireland.  The  feel  of 
a  good  Irish-linen  table  cloth  is  representative  of  how  the  best 
linen  should  feel;  the  patterns,  however,  are  less  showy  and, effec- 
tive than  in  French  damasks.  Ireland  also  manufactures  towelling, 
fine  cambrics,  lawns,  and  batistes. 

Scotch  linens,  especially  from  a  few  good  houses,  have  a  high 
reputation.  Sun  and  grass  bleaching  are  still  used  to  some  extent 
for  the  better  grades.  Scotland  does  a  large  business  in  the  heaviest 
linens,  such  as  sail  cloths,  sacking,  carpet  yarns,  canvas,  and  tar- 
paulin. Much  of  the  medium-priced  linen  has  been  exported  to 
the  United  States.  The  designs  in  the  damask  are  more  elaborate 
than  the  Irish  ones.  Scotland  has  relied  less  on  Belgium  for  its 
yarn  than  have  other  countries. 

Austria,  Belgium,  and  France  have  sent  their  finest  linens  to 
America.  The  French  damask  has  been  noted  for  its  exquisite 
design  and  effective  appearance. 

Russia  has  sent  to  this  country  the  heavy  crashes. 

German  linens  range  from  very  good  to  lower  grades.  The 
medium  grades  have  been  used  in  the  United  States.  Good  un- 
bleached linens  and  colored  linens  have  come  from  that  country. 

The  United  States  depends  on  Europe  for  its  supply  of  fine 
linen,  for  with  us  flax  is  grown  for  seed  rather  than  for  fiber.  The 
seeds  are  pressed,  to  be  made  into  linseed  oil  or  varnishes,  and  a 
profitable  business  is  conducted.  When  the  crop  is  grown  for  seed 
it  cannot  be  used  for  the  finest  fiber.  For  fiber  the  crop  is  harvested 
before  the  seeds  are  ripe^and  the  planting  must  be  close  enough  to- 
gether to  keep  the  flax  from  branching.  If  the  plant  is  full  of 
branches— ^-which  increases  the  yield  of  the  seeds — it  will  spoil  the 
smoothness  of  the  long  fiber.  The  crop  in  the  United  States  is  used, 
however,  to  some  extent  for  coarse  fabrics,  bagging,  binding  twines, 


68  CLOTHING 

and  ropes.  To  grow  the  flax  for  fiber  requires  much  labor,  yet,  out  of 
a  large  field  of  flax  but  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  fiber  is  ob- 
tained ;  other  crops  are  less  trouble,  and  give  better  returns.  There 
is  a  great  amount  of  waste,  for  the  woody  matter  has  to  be  removed 
before  the  fiber  is  released.  The  cleaning,  spinning,  and  manufac- 
turing processes  are  also  expensive.  Linen  cannot  therefore  be  in 
common  use,  on  account  of  the  difficulties  and  expenses  of  its  growth 
and  manufacture. 

The  University  of  Oregon  is  making  a  special  effort  to  encourage 
the  cultivation  of  flax  for  fiber  in  that  state.  The  soil  and  climate 
of  western  Oregon  are  much  like  Ireland  and  Belgium,  and  the 
streams  have  no  minerals  in  solution,  which  is  favorable  for  flax 
retting.  Three  hundred  acres  were  planted  in  1917  and  materials 
woven  from  the  fiber  were  exhibited,  such  as  novelty  yarns,  house- 
hold and  dress  materials,  crash,  sheetings,  and  insulating  felt.  The 
Chamber  of  Commerce  in  Portland,  Oregon,  has  been  active  in 
forwarding  the  idea.  In  New  York  State,  also,  flax  has  been  grown 
from  which  fine  linen  has  been  woven. 

The  tow  (the  waste  from  combing  or  hackling)  can  be  pre- 
pared into  yarn  more  quickly  and  less  expensively  than  can  be  done 
with  the  line  or  long  smooth  fiber.  Tow  is  being  manufactured  in 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Minnesota.  It  has  the  qualities  of 
flax,  but  less  endurance  and  luster  than  the  line.  Efforts  to 
develop  a  flax  industry  which  may  yield  line  as  well  as  tow  and  yet 
save  the  seeds  are  being  made.  The  flax  is  grown  in  the  United 
States,  is  sun-dried  and  threshed  in  order  to  remove  the  seeds,  and 
the  woody  part  is  removed  by  a  decorticating  machine  in  place  of 
the  foreign  method  of  retting  in  water.  The  fiber  obtained  has  the 
gum  still  in  it,  but  is  given  a  special  treatment  to  soften  it  and 
prepare  it  for  hackling  and  spinning. 

Changes  in  Supply. — The  European  harvest  of  1020  was  less 
than  OIK-  halt'  of  the  1!MJ  crop.  Tin-  Cnited  States  in  11)1  t  im- 
ported linen  fahri<-  (a  >mall  amount  of  ramie  and  hemp  were  in- 
cluded) to  the  \;due  of  |4l,457,334.  *  BY  the  close  o!'  the  war 
purh  importations  had  virtually  ceased.  The  stock  imported  be- 
fore the  war  was  depleted  and  prices  had  risen  materially.  One 
result  of  the  >horta<rc  was  the  inm-a-ed  use  of  cotton  for  towelling 

'Census  of  Manufactures,  1914,  U.  8,  Dept.  of  Commerce. 


LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD  69 

and  table  cloths.  Even  Ireland  used  it  in  place  of  flax.  By  1921 
a  good  trade  with  Ireland  was  established.  More  flax  was  available 
and  the  use  of  cotton  had  decreased.  Plans  are  being  made  for  the 
use  of  a  trade  mark  to  identify  pure  linen.  The  continent  of 
Europe  is  again  producing  and  exporting  linen  but  is  keeping 
the  bulk  of  the  flax  for  its  own  factories.  It  will  be  several  years 
before  the  industry  is  normal  and  prices  will  continue  to  be  high. 
England  has  heretofore  had  a  good  business  in  manufacturing  fine 
linens  for  dress  or  table  use,  and  also  in  tickings,  sheetings  and 
Hollands,  which  will  be  curtailed  until  flax  is  again  produced  as 
it  was  before  the  war. 

Properties  of  Linen. — Linen  absorbs  water  in  quantity  about 
equal  to  cotton,  but  in  the  former  the  water  spreads  through  the 
meshes,  while  in  cotton  it  stands  longer  on  the  surface.  If  linen  is 
sized,  it  does  not  take  up  the  water  as  quickly  as  when  not  dressed. 
One  way  of  telling  linen  from  cotton  has  been  to  drop  some  water 
on  each  fabric,  and  note  the  way  it  is  absorbed.  Cotton  seems  to 
feel  wetter  than  the  linen,  for  the  water  is  on  the  surface.  A  drop 
of  ink  or  one  of  glycerine  on  unsized  linen  are  other  tests  used. 
The  latter  is  a  good  test,  for  it  makes  linen  appear  transparent  and 
has  not  this  effect  on  cotton.  If  the  goods  under  consideration  is  a 
union  of  cotton  and  linen,  it  will  show  the  transparency  in  a  less 
degree  than  if  of  all  linen.  Water  evaporates  more  rapidly  from 
linen  than  from  cotton,  but  in  rapid  evaporation  there  is  a  feeling 
of  cold  which  can  be  noticed  if  a  closely-woven  linen  garment  is 
worn  next  to  the  skin.  The  fact  that  linen  dries  rapidly  is  a  high 
recommendation  for  its  use  for  mesh  undergarment??,  for  keeping 
the  body  dry  is  an  important  factor  in  health.  (See  Chapter  VII, 
section  "  Clothing  and  Bodily  Heat/')  This  quality  is  valuable 
also  for  towelling  of  all  kinds  and  for  handkerchiefs.  If  cot- 
ton and  linen  of  the  same  consistency  are  saturated  with  water  and 
left  to  dry,  the  linen  will  be  dry  first.  Linen  is  the  most  cleanly 
of  the  textiles.  It  sheds  dust,  especially  in  the  line,  for  the  yarn 
has  few  small  ends  protruding,  and  there  is  less  oil  in  flax  than  in 
cotton  to  catch  the  dust.  It  washes  readily.  The  sanitary  condition 
and  cool  feeling  make  it  of  great  service  in  surgery.  Cotton  is 
treated  to  make  it  available  for  hospital  use  (when  the  cotton  wax 
is  removed  it  becomes  absorbent),  for  the  expense  of  linen  makes  it 


70  CLOTHING 

prohibitive  for  common  use  in  this  way.  It  has  become  cus- 
tomary in  well-organized  households  to  keep  all  pieces  of  old  linen 
to  use  in  accidents;  they  can  be  sterilized  and  kept  covered  from 
dust.  Germs  do  not  grow  as  rapidly  upon  linen  as  upon  wool  and 
silk.  The  wear  of  linen  is  justly  noted,  but  chemical  bleaches  and 
hasty  finishes  lessen  its  endurance.  Unbleached  linen  is  stronger 
than  the  bleached.  The  length  of  the  filament  is  a  factor  in  the 
strength,  therefore  the  line  is  more  enduring  than  the  tow.  Linen 
does  not  deteriorate  quickly  when  stored  away  if  it  is  without  dress- 
ings and  starch.  Bleaching  powders  and  alkaline  solutions  in  the 
laundry  injure  linen  and  boiling  water  is  not  good  for  it.  During 
the  war  poison  gas  was  found  to  have  a  serious  effect  on  linen 
stored  away  in  presses,  as  it  had  also  on  leather ;  the  linen  was  found 
to  have  disintegrated  completely  when  it  was  opened,  and  the 
leather  had  hardened  and  shrunk. 

The  tenacity,  solidity,  and  toughness  of  linen  are  the  qualities 
which  make  it  of  the  highest  value  in  ropes,  twines,  and  cordage 
These  qualities  are  a  part  of  its  strength  It  is  possible  to  spin 
linen  to  the  finest  filament.  Even  tfien,  the  strength  is  notable  -and 
has  made  it  possible  to  keep  the  most  gossamer  laces  for  centuries. 
The  knowledge  of  historic  weavings  and  lace  has  been  made  possible 
by  the  qualities  of  flax  for  no  other  textile  would  have  endured  so 
long.  Even  after  thousands  of  years  buried  in  tombs,  the  linen  of 
Egypt  will  stand  washing.  The  luster  of  linen  is  almost  as  high  as 
silk ;  when  retted  too  long  in  its  preparation  it  loses  this  quality ; 
beetling  (hammer ing)  will  increase  the  sheen  in  well-prepared  linen. 
The  tow  has  less  luster  than  the  line,  for  the  fiber  is  shorter,  but  treat- 
ment gives  it  much  gloss,  which  it  loses  as  the  little  fibers  again 
protrude  from  the  yarn.  Tow  has  much  more  permanent  gloss, 
however,  than  cotton  which  has  not  been  mercerized.  Neither  linm 
nor  cotton  holds  ordinary  dyes  well.  Colored  dress  linens  are  apt 
to  fade,  therefore  they  are  generally  more  attractive  and  reliable  in 
the  various  bleaches  than  in  color.  Linen  has  some  suppleness 
when  unsized,  but  when  heavily  dressed  it  creases  and  even  breaks  if 
stored  away  for  a  time.  It  should  be  stored  without  dressing  in  it. 

Representative   Materials. — Heavy  Grades. — Sail  cloth,  tar- 
paulin, canvas,  -sicking.  <  arpet  yarns,  ropes,  cordage. 

Medium  HVi'// ///>•.     Towelling,  sheeting,  Hollands,  crash,  but- 


LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD  71 

chers'  linen,  dress  linen,  velour,  collar  and  cuff  linen,  pillow- 
case linen. 

Twill  and  Pattern. — Drilling,  diapers,  damask,  huckaback. 

Fine  Linens. — Cambrics,  lawns,  handkerchief  linen,  batiste. 

Printed  and  Dyed  Fabrics. — Luncheon  sets,  table  linen  and  table 
covers,  dress  linen. 

Miscellaneous. — Lace,  warp  of  oil  cloth,  harness,  shoe  and  sewing 
threads,  twines,  fish  lines. 

Union  Goods. — Towelling,  dress  goods,  lawns,  cambrics,  sheet- 
ing, mesh  underwear,  pillow  cases,  handkerchief  linen. 

Comparing  Cotton  and  Linen. — The  properties  of  linen  are 
very  different  from  those  of  cotton,  and  as  the  latter,  on  account  of 
the  destruction  caused  by  the  war,  is  temporarily  taking  the  place 
of  linen,  it  is  well  for  housekeepers  to  consider  the  differences, 
and  if  cotton  must  be  used,  to  obtain  its  best  service  by  taking  care 
of  it  correctly.  Even  before  the  war  cotton  was  coming  into  service 
in  many  cases  where  a  century  before  only  linen  was  used,  as  in 
men's  shirts  and  collars,  towelling  and  bed  linen.  A  test  on  the 
daily  use  of  each  fiber  was  made  before  the  war  at  a  home-keeping 
house  connected  with  a  Girl's  Trade  School.  New  towels  of  both 
linen  and  cotton  were  provided  of  equal  consistency  and  quality. 
They  were  to  be  used  regularly  in  the  work  of  the  house  and  com- 
pared: (1)  How  each  absorbs  water;  (2)  which  dries  more  quickly; 
(3)  which  soils  more  quickly;  (4)  which  washes  more  easily;  (5) 
which  is  more  linty;  (6)  which  wears  the  longest;  finally,  which  is 
the  best  to  buy,  even  if  the  expense  of  one  is  much  greater  than 
the  other.  The  linen  towels  when  bought  cost  about  three  times  as 
much  as  the  cotton  ones.  Linen  towels  are  scarce  at  the  present 
time,  and  cotton  towels  cost  now  about  the  same  as  the  linen  ones 
did  then.  The  conclusion  after  ten  months  was :  "  After  constant 
use  the  linen  towel  has  kept  whiter  and  laundered  to  look  better 
than  the  cotton.  Stains  are  much  more  easily  removed  from  the 
linen,  and  dirt  does  not  discolor  the  linen  as  it  does  the  cotton. 
The  linen  dries  the  hands  with  less  effort  than  the  cotton.  When- 
ever there  could  be  a  choice  the  linen  towel  was  used  in  preference 
to  the  cotton.  The  linen  towel  wore  longer." 

The  following  can  also  be  demonstrated  by  tests:  The  cotton 
fiber  being  short  and  full  of  oil  easily  catches  the  dust  after  the 


72  CLOTHING 

finish  placed  on  the  new  towel  has  gone.  After  use  for  a  short  time, 
towelling  made  from  cotton  becomes  gray  and  dull  looking,  and 
requires  constant  boiling  to  keep  it  sanitary.  Cotton  dries  more 
slowly  than  linen  and  as  a  result  several  towels  are  needed  where 
two  linen  ones  would  serve.  When  cotton  towelling  is  new,  it 
seems  almost  as  satisfactory  as  linen,  for  it  has  a  smooth,  glistening 
finish,  but  this  passes  away  in  frequent  washings,  and  the  short 
cotton  fibers  and  lint  come  off  in  flecks  and  cling  to  the  china  and 
glass,  which  is  not  hygienic.  As  cotton  is  used  often  at  present  in 
place  of  linen  it  is  well  to  remember  that  to  keep  it  cleanly  it  must 
be  washed  more  frequently  than  linen,  and  occasionally  boiled  to  keep 
it  sanitary.  Table  cloths  of  mercerized  damask  appear  well  at 
first,  but  soon  lack  the  luster  of  good  linen  cloths  and  become  in 
time  dead  looking,  mussy,  and  not  quite  clean  and  fresh. 

The  union  of  cotton  and  linen  in  fabrics,  towelling,  and  bed 
linen  is  frequent.  Such  goods  may  be  very  satisfactory  for  some 
purposes,  but  the  good  qualities  of  flax  are  reduced  in  proportion 
as  cotton  is  added.  It  is  hard  to  detect  the  substitution  when  the 
product  is  new,  but  wear  will  indicate  it  before  long.  ( See  Chapter 
VIII,  section  "Home  Tests/')  Cotton  is  combined  with  linen  in 
porous  underwear,  the  linen  thus  spinning  better,  it  is  said.  The 
mesh  underwear  has  qualities  which  make  it  hygienically  desirable, 
for  it  keeps  the  body  clean,  dry,  and  well  ventilated.  (See  Chapter 
VII,  section  "The*  Part  Textiles  Play.")  But  when  flax  is  the 
main  fiber  the  garment  is  expensive.  Some  of  this  union  under- 
wear is  not  strong  and  cotton  mesh  is  being  increasingly  used  in 
place  of  the  linen. 

Suggestions. — If  the  properties  of  linen  are  wanted,  the  purest, 
unsized  material  should  be  purchased.  When  linen  is  very  stiff  and 
creases  easily,  it  probably  contains  much  dressing,  and  the  weave 
may  be  quite  open  under  it.  When  the  dressing  goes,  it  will  be 
sleazy  and  wear  out  quickly.  Good  linen  has  considerable  weight 
and  is  sold  by  weight.  If  the  finger-nail  is  pressed  against  a  heavily 
dressed  cloth,  the  sizing  will  come  off  in  flecks.  Double  damask  (a 
double  thread  is  placed  at  least  in  the  filling)  is  more  beautiful  and 
enduring  than  the  single,  ami  the  pattern  shows  more  distinctly  on 
the  wrong  side.  Both  sides  of  a  damask  table  cloth  can  be  used, 
but  the  effect  is  better  in  the  double.  The  pattern  in  damask  is  in 


LINEN  FOR  CLOTHING  AND  HOUSEHOLD  73 

the  warp  threads.  The  right  side  of  the  cloth  shows  the  vertical 
lines  (warp)  light,  and  the  filling  (woof)  threads  dark. 

The  hem  on  a  linen  table  cloth  should  be  very  narrow,  made  by 
hand  with  the  napery  stitch  (a  fine  overhand  stitch),  so  that  the  cloth 
may  launder  better,  the  hem  last  longer,  and  the  effect  be  neater. 
It  pays  to  keep  the  linen  in  the  best  repair;  the  good  housekeeper 
knows  the  value  of  good  linen,  and  the  linen  of  a  household  is  often 
taken  care  of  when  other  textiles  are  neglected.  A  close  all-over 
pattern  will  launder  better  than  bands  and  twill  alternating,  for 
the  pattern  part  will  shrink  less  than  the  twill,  and  when  the  alter- 
nations are  far  apart  the  cloth  is  apt  to  cockle  after  laundering,  for 
the  twill  and  pattern  shrink  differently. 

In  judging  linen  it  is  well  to  have  definite  points  in  view.  The 
best  linen  is  sized  very  little,  and  a  round  thread  is  better  than  a 
flat  one.  In  the  poorer  qualities,  loosely  woven  material  is  heavily 
dressed  and  beetled  to  look  smooth  and  shiny ;  the  beetling  flattens 
the  yarn  which  has  not  been  round  in  the  first  place.  The  number 
of  threads  per  inch  is  important;  in  good  damask  the  warp  will 
have  at  least  180  and  the  filling  280.  A  small  magnifying  glass 
used  by  linen  testers  is  useful  for  counting.  It  is  well  to  feel  the 
weight  of  the  cloth — if  it  is  light  and  heavily  sized,  it  is  not  worth 
buying.  In  the  hand  a  linen  should  not  be  stiff  and  crackly,  but 
smooth,  leathery,  tough,  and  yielding.  If  it  is  crackly  and  crushes 
readily,  it  is  either  over-dressed  poor  linen  or  cotton  finished  to  look 
like  linen.  Crushing  cotton  and  linen  in  the  hand  and  noting  the 
differences  is  a  good  way  to  learn  the  feel  of  each. 

Grass-bleached  linens  in  normal  times  come  to  this  country 
about  the  first  of  January,  having  been  bleached  during  the  pre- 
vious summer.  The  sales  of  linen  that  occur  in  the  winter  time  of 
short  stock  and  goods  left  on  hand  are  worth  the  attention  of  the 
careful  housekeeper.  She  should,  however,  buy  at  reliable  houses 
and  ask  the  assistance  of  the  buyer  if  she  herself  does  not  know  how 
to  judge.  As  linen  does  not  hold  the  dye  well,  the  colored  linens 
are  doubtful  investments,  but  linen  in  any  of  the  bleaches  will  be 
satisfactory  if  made  of  good  line.  Unions  of  cotton  and  linen  have 
their  uses  for  dress  goods,  bed  covering,  pillow  cases,  and  towelling, 
but  are  not  as  apt  to  give  good  service  as  all  linen.  Cloths  with  a 
border  are  more  expensive  than  buying  by  the  yard.  In  buying  bed 


74  CLOTHING 

linen,  the  machine-made  hemstitching  does  not  wear  as  well  as  a 
regular  hem.  Machine-scalloped  edges  soon  become  ragged.  Much 
tow  is  used  in  the  cheaper  linen  sheeting,  and  will  wear  rough  after 
a  time.  Fringed  cloths  and  napkins  do  not  give  good  service. 

Modern  colored  dress  linens  have  not  worn  well  on  account  of 
the  rapid  chemical  bleaches,  the  coarse  structure  filled  with  dressing, 
and  the  lack  of  fastness  in  the  dyes.  Cotton  dress  goods  will  often 
give  better  service  than  will  linen,  the  Indian  Head  muslin,  for  in- 
stance, being  much  like  linen  in  appearance  and  costing  much  less, 
yet  giving  good  service.  Machine-made  linen  lace,  if  it  has  a 
strong  edge,  is  excellent  for  trimming  undermuslins. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  special  uses  of  flax,  and  why? 

2.  What  qualities  make  it  pre-eminent  for  the  home  and  the  hospital  ? 

3.  Compare  cotton  and  linen  for  household  purposes. 

4.  What  are  the  main  factors  in  judging  linen? 

f>.  What  is  tow,  and  what  is  its  particular  field  of  service? 

TOPICS    FOR    FURTHER    STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  economic  basis  for  the  fact  that  the  United  States  depends 

upon  other  countries  for  its  finer  linen?     What  do  we  do  with  the 
large  amount  of  flax  grown  in  this  country? 

2.  Where  and  how  is  it  cultivated,  what  has  been  the  effect  of  the  war 

upon  it,  and  what  is  the  present  status? 

3.  Give  details  of  flax  preparation  into  yarn,  the  weaving  of  it  for  ordinary 

and  for  exclusive  purposes,  and  methods  of  bleaching  and  dyeing. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CLOTHING  ACCESSORIES 

Leather  Goods. — Leather  is  made  from  the  skins  of  animals  by 
a  process  called  tanning  which  keeps  it  from  decay.  Skins  of 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  pigs  are  used  principally.  Tanning 
is  treating  the  skin  with  tannic  acid  after  the  hair  is  removed. 
The  leather  used  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Russia,  South 
America,  India,  China,  Asia  Minor,  Mexico,  and  Mediterranean 
ports.  Russia,  which  was  before  the  war,  a  chief  source  of  leather 
can  no  longer  be  depended  upon  but  South  America  promises  to 
become  a  leader. 

Shoes  are,  in  general, -made  in  four  ways: — (1)  The  welt 
shoe,  which  has  a  small  strip  of  leather  sewed  first  to  the  "upper" 
and  then  to  the  sole,  the  highest  grade  shoes  are  made  in  this  way : 
(2)  The  "upper''  and  the  sole  are  sewed  together  directly,  this  is 
done  with  the  cheaper  shoes :  (3)  The  "turned"  shoe  in  which  the 
sole  is  joined  to  the  "upper"  with  the  entire  shoe  inside  out  and 
then  turned,  as  is  done  with  women's  pliable  shoes;  and  (4)  the 
nailed,  pegged  or  screwed  on  sole,  for  cheap  shoes.  The  greater 
number  of  shoes  are  made  by  machine,  it  requires  about  fifty 
machines,  two  hundred  processes  and  one  hundred  workers  for  one 
pair  of  shoes.  The  cost  of  shoes  is  said  to  be  30  per  cent,  labor. 

Shark  hides  are  being  used  for  leather.  The  horny  outer 
covering  is  removed  and  the  elastic  under  skin  is  tanned.  The 
stomach  covering  of  the  older  sharks  and  the  under  skin  of  the  young 
ones  are  used  for  gloves,  pocketbooks  and  cases.  The  shark  is  pro- 
cured in  large  numbers  in  the  ocean  from  Virginia,  around  Florida 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Artificial  leather  has  been  in  use  for  the  soles  of  shoes.  A  pair 
with  composition  soles  will  cost  probably  $1.50  less  than  if  the  soles 
were  leather.  Shoes  are  made  entirely  without  leather  by  using 
cloth  or  canvas  for  the  uppers  and  composition  soles.  Such  shoes 

75 


76  CLOTHING 

sell  for  much  less  than  leather  ones.  Experiments  in  substitutes 
for  leather  are  being  tried,  among  which  is  the  tanning  of  porpoise 
skin,  with,  it  is  stated,  some  satisfactory  results.  Rubber  is  used 
largely  in  composition  soles,  which  are  enduring,  but  heating  to 
the  feet.  (See  Chapter  VII,  section  "  Keep  the  Body  Unhampered 
and  Comfortable.") 

Good  leather  is  always  expensive ;  cheap  shoes  will  not  give  good 
service.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  higher  priced  plain 
shoes  are  more  durable  than  the  lower  priced  ones.  Fancy  shoes  are 
high  in  price,  due  to  labor  cost  and  novelty  cost,  and  are  unenduring 
for  service.  For  ordinary  street  wear  single  soles  of  moderate 
thickness  and  soft,  thin  uppers  are  usually  the  most  satisfactory. 
Patent-leather  shoes  and  shoes  with  thin,  delicate  uppers  and  soles 
cannot  stand  rough  usage.  They  are  expensive,  but  are  not  fitted 
for  heavy  street  wear  or  for  rainy  weather.  (See  Chapter  XI. 
section  "  Care  of  Various  Articles.") 

The  person  who  wishes  long  service  should  buy  as  good  a  shoe 
as  the  market  provides,  practical  in  shape,  well  made,  and  with  a 
strong  sole.  He  can  buy  cloth  or  canvas  shoes  with  composition 
soles  and  save  money.  He  should  buy  a  shoe  longer  than  his  foot, 
of  the  shape  of  the  foot,  and  with  a  flat  heel  under  the  heel  of 
the  foot.  Low  shoes  should  be  put  on  with  a  shoe  horn. 

Gloves  are  made  from  the  skin  of  the  deer,  the  sheep,  the  pig, 
the  reindeer,  and  other  animals.  Sheep  skins  from  Arabia  are. 
however,  largely  used  for  the  usual  kid  gloves  which  have  been  im- 
ported from  France  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  United  States  is 
producing  gloves  in  various  qualities,  but  the  suede  glove  is  im- 
ported. England  furnishes  some  excellent,  durable  varieties. 
Mocha  skins  come  from  Arabia.  The  wear  of  kid  gloves  de- 
pends largely  on  the  care  given  to  them.  They  should  be  put  on 
and  taken  off  carefully.  Washing  or  cleaning-  can  be  successful  if 
•ions,  that  often  come  with  the  gloves,  are  followed  accurately. 
(See  Chapter  XI,  section  "The  Care  of  Various  Articles.")  Cha- 
mois gloves  are  made  from  doeskin  and  are  washable;  the  glace 
^love  j«  M  brushed  leather,  and  the  capes  are  a  clipped  grain  leather. 
The  leather  glove  industry  of  the  United  States  is  largely  in 
Gloverflville  and  other  towns  in  Fulton  County,  Xew  York.  Of  the 
::.V>  factories  in  the  United  States  216  are  in  New  York. 


CLOTHING  ACCESSORIES  77 

Gloves  are  also  made  of  cotton,  silk  and  wool.  Cotton  gloves 
aie  used  by  the  majority  of  people,  for  the  price  is  lower,  they  wear 
well,  and  wash  easily.  A  high  grade  of  cotton  glove  is  made  with  a 
chamois  (suede)  finish,  and  double  (duplicate)  gloves  are  attrac- 
tive, but  high  in  price.  Before  the  war  many  of  the  cotton  gloves 
were  imported,  90  per  cent,  of  these  coming  from  Germany. 
Chemnitz,  Saxony,  was  the  center  for  suede  gloves.  Prior  to  1914 
all  suede  gloves  were  imported,  but  since  that  time  the  industry  -has 
rapidly  increased  in  this  country.  The  sueding  and  duplicating  are 
secret  processes,  the  latter  being  not  yet  done  in  the  United  States. 
Our  sueded  gloves  are  now  as  strong  as  the  earlier  imported  ones, 
but  as  yet  have  not  the  same  velvety  finish.  The  cloth  used  is  made 
by  the  ee  Atlas "  process,  which  is  knitting  rather  than  weaving. 
The  necessary  machines  also  are  being  made  in  this  country.  The 
fabric  is  very  elastic  lengthwise  and  therefore  fits  well ;  it  is  less  so 
crosswise,  consequently  keeps  its  shape.  Fine  lisle  thread  gloves 
wear  well  and  are  used  extensively.  Before  the  war  they  were  im- 
ported, Japan  furnishing  a  large  number,  but  now  50  per  cent,  are 
made  in  the  United  States.  Lisle  and  suede  gloves  are  made  prin- 
cipally in  or  near  New  York  City.  Thin,  cheap,  silk  gloves  do  not 
wear  well,  but  when  made  of  good  silk,  well  cut,  well  finished,  and 
double  in  the  fingers  are  attractive  and  enduring.  They  take  the 
place  of  kid  gloves  for  dressy  wear  in  summer  time.  Silk  gloves  of 
excellent  quality  and  shape  are  made  in  the  United  States. 

Knit  Goods  and  Hosiery. — Knit  goods  of  plain  or  mercerized 
cotton,  wool,  silk,  or  artificial  silk,  and  unions  with  linen  are  exten- 
sively manufactured.  Underwear,  hosiery,  headwear,  coats, 
sweaters,  cardigan  jackets,  scarfs,  leggings,  gloves,  mittens,  and 
other  articles  are  thus  made.  Jersey  cloth  in  wool,  silk,  or  artificial 
silk  is  made  for  dress  goods  and  a  cotton  knitted  background  is 
used  in  some  fabrics,  as  in  eiderdown  flannel.  Knitting  machines 
are  constantly  improved,  and  equal  the  work  of  skilled  hand 
knitters.  A  complete  garment  can  now  be  made  by  passing  it  from 
one  machine  to  another,  as  changes  are  .needed  such  as  knitting 
sleeves  into  the  arm  holes  of  a  sweater.  A  great  variety  of  stitches 
are  possible,  and  two  or  more  are  frequently  combined  in  one  gar- 
ment, as  in  a  sweater  with  both  the  plain  and  the  ribbed  stitches. 
Knitting  mills  are  increasing  in  the  United  States  and  excellent 


78  CLOTHING 

goods  are  produced.  New  York  and  Philadelphia  are  manufactur- 
ing centers  for  knit  goods.  This  industry  increased  rapidly  before 
the  war.  The  Census  of  1914  reports  1,622  establishments  with  a 
capital  of  about  three  million  dollars.  The  war  retarded  the  growth 
but  by  1921  business  had  adjusted  itself  with  the  promise  of  further 
success.  The  value  of  the  industry  in  1920  was  $286,500,000,  437 
per  cent,  over  1914.  Thirty-four  states  have  knitting  factories. 
Prices  have  been  high  and  will  continue  so  for  some  time.1  In 
November,  1919,  full-fashioned  mercerized  stockings  for  women 
were  being  sold  to  jobbers  at  $12  the  dozen  in  contrast  to  $3.50  the 
dozen  in  1914.  In  the  latter  year  the  two-ply  mercerized  yarn  to 
make  these  stockings  cost  the  manufacturer  but  55  cents  a  pound, 
whereas  the  price  in  1919  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  $3.25  a  pound. 

Knitting  is  a  catching  of  one  loop  into  another  and  not  the 
passing  of  one  thread  under  the  other,  as  in  woven  goods.  The 
quality  of  the  yarn  used,  the  variety  of  machines  required,  and  the 
methods  of  finishing  are  factors  in  the  price.  When  buying  knitted 
underwear  it  is  well  to  examine  the  fabric  to  see  if  it  is  evenly 
knitted.  If  cloudy  and  irregular  with  thick  and  thin  places  the 
structure  is  weak. 

Hosiery  is  found  as  "  cut  goods,"  "  seamless1,"  and  "  full- 
fafihioned."  The  first  is  the  cheapest  and  consists  in  knitting  a  long 
web  on  a  circular  knitting  machine.  When  this  tube  is  taken  from 
the  machine,  it  is  cut  in  lengths  for  socks  or  stockings,  and  the 
foot  part  is  formed  by  shaping  one  end  of  the  webbing  into  the  form 
of  the  foot,  sewing  it  together  on  a  machine,  and  shrinking  the 
stocking  into  a  good  shape  on  a  board.  Ribbed  tops  are  sometimes 
placed  on  these  stockings.  They  are  not  perfectly  shaped,  the  seams 
are  more  or  less  uncomfortable  for  sensitive  feet,  and  they  are 
usually  made  of  a  cheap,  poor  cotton  yarn.  They  are  very  inexpen- 
sive and  largely  used  by  those  of  limited  incomes. 

Seamless  hosiery  is  knit  on  a  special  circular  machine  which 
forms  the  foot  and  heel  on  the  end  of  the  tube-like  web.  The  join 
for  closing  the  stocking  is  made  on  a  looper  machine  and  is  across 
the  top,  below  the  toes.  These  stockings  are  more  expensive  than 
the  "  cut  goods,"  but  are  cheaper  than  the  full-fashioned  hose.  The 
newer  machines  give  them  a  good  shape,  and  when  they  are  shrunk 

i  Daily  News  Record,  November  21,  1919. 


CLOTHING  ACCESSORIES  79 

and  finished  they  look  well,  but  they  are  apt,  after  being  laundered 
several  times,  to  stretch  at  the  ankle.  Some  find  the  joining  near 
the  toes  uncomfortable.  Many  object  to  the  absence  of  a  seam 
down  the  back,  which  is  found  in  the  full-fashioned  hose,  and  a 
machine  has  been  invented  which  places  a  mock  seam  down  the 
back  over  the  seamless  web.  Newer  varieties  are  being  shaped 
better  at  the  ankle  and  toe  and  resemble  the  full-fashioned  kind. 
The  finishing  processes — shrinking  and  pressing — help  the  appear- 
ance ;  a  good  stocking  of  this  kind  wears  well.  At  the  present  time, 
with  prices  of  hosiery  very  high,  the  seamless  variety  costs  about 
the  same  as  the  full-fashioned  did  before  the  war.  This  condition 
will  pass  as  industry  becomes  normal.  Varieties  of  seamless  Dock- 
ings are  especially  advertised  for  their  endurance;  an  excellent 
long-staple  cotton  is  used  in  them,  and  the  sizes  are  said  to  run  a 
little  larger  than  in  other  stockings,  which  helps  in  the  endurance. 
The  majority  of  people  wear  stockings  too  short  and  the  fabric 
breaks  at  the  toes  and  heels. 

Full-fashioned  stockings  are  the  highest  type.  They  are  knitted 
flat  in  several  sections  in  the  shape  of  the  foot,  and  joined  together, 
by  a  special  machine,  down  the  back,  under  the  foot,  and  at  the  end 
beyond  the  toes.  The  knitting  frames  are  complicated  and  expen- 
sive and  automatically  drop  fetitches  in  forming  the  ankle,  heel, 
and  gusset.  Several  frames  are  needed  to  complete  a  stocking,  and 
the  web  has  to  be  carefully  removed  from  one  to  another  in  order 
that  each  loop  may  be  placed  exactly  where  it  should  be  on 
the  needles. 

The  finishing  of  stockings  is  important.  Dyeing  may  be  done 
in  the  yarn  or  in  the  finished  article.  As  cotton  does  not  in  general 
hold  the  dye  well,  hosiery  should  be  well  dyed  to  stand  the  constant 
washing  or  it  will  become  grayish  and  unattractive.  The  solving 
of  the  dye  problem  in  America  (see  Chapter  XII,  section  te  Dyeing 
and  Tinting  ")  will  give  fast  dyes  in  cotton  as  well  as  in  wool  and 
silk.  Stockings  should  be  bought  a  little  longer  than  the  foot. 
(See  Chapter  XI,  section  "The  Care  of  Various  Articles.")  Sec- 
onds (stockings  with  some  defect)  can  be  bought  at  reduced  prices 
and  are  often  satisfactory.  Plated  hosiery  in  which  silk  is  knitted 
above  cotton  are  on  the  market.  The  appearance  when  new  is 
satisfactory,  but  the  silk  surface  sometimes  becomes  rough. 


80  CLOTHING 

Manufacturers  are  endeavoring  to  strengthen  weak  places  in 
hosiery  where  the  strain  is  greatest,  and  are  reenforcing  the  wel>  at 
heel,  toe,  and  where  the  garter  catches.  Cotton  is  placed  in  the  feet 
and  in  the  upper  leg  of  silk  stockings  of  the  less  expensive  varieties, 
which  makes  them  last  longer.  A  cheap  all-silk  stocking  is  seldom 
worth  the  money  it  costs,  and  weighted  silk  is  not  enduring.  (See 
Chapter  IV,  sections  "  Knitted  Silk  "  and  "  Adulterations  and  Sub- 
stitutions.")  A  good  silk  stocking  is  expensive,  but  should  give  ser- 
vice. Stockings  are  made  of  fiber  silk  and  many  of  them  are  giving 
satisfaction.  It  pays  to  buy  the  best  hosiery,  to  know  the  names 
of  firms  which  are  doing  satisfactory  work,  and  what  retail  firms 
are  selling  their  goods.  Some  stocking  manufacturers  are  selling 
direct  to  the  public. 

Rubber  Goods. — Rubber  is  made  from  the  sap  of  certain  trees 
that  grow  in  the  tropics,  incisions  being  made  in  the  bark  and  the 
sap  caught  in  receptacles  as  it  flows  from  the  trees.  Brazil  and  the 
East  Indies  provide  rubber.  The  Amazon  Valley  yields  the  largest 
amount  of  wild  rubber,  but  the  demand  for  it  has  developed  planta- 
tions of  rubber  trees  elsewhere  which  have  greatly  increased  the 
supply.  Rubber  has  to  be  treated  to  make  it  available  for  practical 
service.  The  increase  in  its  use  has  been  so  great  that  waste  rubber 
is  reclaimed  to  augment  the  supply;  and  while  not  equal  to  the 
crude  material,  it  renders  useful  service.  Rubber  is  used  for  many 
practical  purposes  in  dress,  among  which  are  waterproof  coats,  hats, 
rubber  shoes,  rubber  heels  and  soles,  dress  shields,  bibs,  aprons, 
and  gloves.  Cloth  can  be  made  waterproof  by  putting  a  thin  film 
of  rubber  over  it.  The  heating  of  rubber  and  sulphur  together,  or 
vulcanizing,  is  a  process  which  gives  elasticity  and  endurance. 
Overshoes  and  gum  boots  are  made  largely  from  reclaimed  rubber 
and  they  can  be  repaired  by  vulcanizing  again  if  the  holes  are  not 
too  lar-'  •.  I  lubber  is  being  experimented  with  as  a  substitute  for 
leather  in  the  soles  of  shoes,  and  hard  rubber  is  used  for  combs, 
brushes,  and  other  purposes.  The  difference  between  hard  and  soft 
rubber  is  largely  in  the  amount  of  sulphur  in  combination.  The 
elasticity  and  waterproof  quality  of  rubber  are  important  prop- 
erties. Rubber  goods  easily  deteriorate  in  heat,  in  sunshine,  or  in 
contact  with  oil.  Rubber  shoes  and  garments  should  never  be  put 
near  the  heat  to  dry,  and  a  cool,  damp  place  is  the  best  for  storing 


CLOTHING  ACCESSORIES  81 

them.     If  oil  comes  in  contact  with  rubber  it  should  be  wiped  off 
quickly,  or  the  article 'will  soften  and  become  gummy. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  what  countries  do  we  get  leather,  and  how  can  we  lengthen  its 

service  ? 

2.  What  is  artificial  leather  and  how  does  it  wear  ? 

3.  Describe  the  difference  between  knit  goods  and  woven  goods. 

4.  Of  what  different  materials  are  gloves  made  and  for  what  service  are 

they  adapted? 

5.  From  where  does  the  rubber  come  ?    Name  some  of  the  many  purposes  for 

which  it  is  used. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Arrange  in  tabular  form  a  comparative  study  of  the  four  leading  textile 

fibers  and  of  leather  and  rubber  as  to  physical  characteristics  which 
aid  in  their  recognition. 

2.  Look  up  the  increase  of  knit  goods  manufacture  of  the  United  States  and 

list  the  product. 

3.  How  is  leather  prepared  for  use  in  shoes  and  gloves? 


CHAPTER  VII 

CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH 

Clothing  as  a  Factor  in  Health. — Clothing  is  important  in 
conserving  the  bodily  energy  or  heat.  The  influence  of  it  in  main- 
taining a  good  physical  condition  has  not  received  the  attention  it 
should,  for  few  have  realized  the  gravity  of  the  situation.  The  Life 
Extension  Institute  gives  as  one  of  its  twelve  laws  of  health :  "  Wear 
light,  loose,  and  porous  clothes ! ",  but  as  yet,  only  a  few  men  and 
women  are  living  up  to  this  law  as  fundamental  to  their  well  being. 

At  the  present  time,  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  every  citizen  is 
to  keep  well  and  vigorous,  for  the  times  are  calling  for  service.  Our 
bodies  when  normal  tend  towards  health,  and  we  must  do  nothing 
to  obstruct  this  tendency.  Every  factor  in  efficiency  should  be  ob- 
served. Clothing  plays  its  part  in  giving  endurance,  cheerfulness, 
happiness,  and  health.  It  is,  therefore,  incumbent  upon  every 
citizen  to  be  so  clad  that  energy  is  conserved,  ability  is  unhampered, 
and  health  is  furthered  rather  than  impeded. 

The  resistance  of  the  body  is  lessened  or  increased  by  our  mode 
of  dressing.  In  many  particulars  the  clothing  of  women  has  been 
lacking  in  hygienic  features.  It  may  be  appropriate,  beautiful,  and 
healthful  at  the  same  time,  if  thought  is  given  to  it,  and  if  some 
old  conservative  notions  are  thrown  aside  for  new  and  health-pro- 
moting standards.  Men's  clothing  is  over-heavy,  and  impervious 
to  air,  but  is  an  improvement  over  women's  in  fitness  for  service 
and  in  comfort  and  lack  of  pressure. 

Clothing  and  Bodily  Heat. — The  body  in  its  ideal  condition 
is  maintained  at  a  constant  temperature  of  98.6°  F.  Small  varia- 
tions from  this  are  dangerous.  When  the  body  is  uncovered  or 
insufficiently  clad,  it  automatically  attempts  to  regulate  its  heat. 
In  so  doing,  energy  is  taken  that  either  could  be  conserved  if  the 
clothing  were  adequate,  or  that  being  used  to  excess,  leaves  the  body 
in  a  lowered  and  unsatisfactory  physical  condition.  Unclothed 
races  more  readily  react  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  than  do 
those  individuals  who,  wearing  garments,  unnecessarily  expose 
82 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  83 

themselves.  The  maintenance  of  an  even  degree  of  heat,  the  raising 
of  the  temperature  if  it  has  fallen  too  low,  or  rejecting  an  over- 
amount  of  heat  are  automatically  accomplished  in  two  ways :  First, 
chemically,  through  the  nerves  in  the  skin  which  cause  a  constric- 
tion of  the  blood-vessels  supplying  it  the  moment  cold  air  strikes 
it,  and  an  enlargement  of  the  blood-vessels  when  hot  air  strikes  the 
skin.  As  the  blood  thereupon  goes  to  the  body  tissues,  heat  is  in- 
creased by  oxidation ;  it  is  as  if  a  furnace  had  had  extra  coal  put 
into  it  and  therefore  gave  more  heat.  In  the  second  place,  there  is 
physical  regulation  of  heat — that  is,  the  supplies  of  blood  to  the 
surface  are  increased  or  decreased  without  changing  the  rate  of 
oxidation.  These  variations  in  the  quantity  of  blood  sent  to  the 
skin  control  loss  of  heat  by  conduction,  convection,  radiation,  and 
evaporation.  Since  much  body  heat  is  taken  up  in  evaporating  the 
secretion  of  the  sweat  glands,  perspiration  is  an  important  factor  in 
physical  regulation.  If  the  body  when  hot  is  subjected  to  a  draught, 
the  temperature  will  be  suddenly  lowered,  and  the  result  may  be 
fatal  to  life,  as  only  slight  variations  are  normal.  Overheating  and 
underheating  are  both  dangerous,  yet  these  conditions  are  very  com- 
mon and  few  realize  their  significance. 

Heat  conduction  is  transfer  of  heat  through  contact  of  material 
substances,  the  heat  passing  from  the  warmer  substance  to  the 
colder.  When  heat  is  applied  to  a  substance,  the  particles  first 
heated  transmit  heat  to  those  next  them,  until  the  mass  is  heated 
throughout.  Some  substances  have  greater  conductive  powers  than 
others.  If  a  piece  of  metal  and  a  piece  of  wood  are  heated  equally, 
the  metal  conducts  more  heat  than  the  wood  to  the  hand.  Dry  air- 
is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  consequently,  the  clothing  should  be 
kept  dry  and  full  of  air  so  that  the  bodily  heat  may  be  maintained, 
and  porous  garments  which  hold  air  and  help  in  the  ventilation  of 
the  body  rather  than  closely  woven  materials  should  be  worn  in 
contact  with  the  skin.  Textiles  of  various  kinds  are  not  warm  or 
cold  in  themselves,  but  act  upon  the  body  by  conserving  or  conduct- 
ing away  the  heat.  Cotton  and  linen,  especially  when  wet,  are  good 
conductors  of  heat,  and  are  desirable  in  warm  weather,  when  the 
body  is  apt  to  be  overheated,  but  need  to  be  carefully  used  in  cold 
weather  as  far  as  conductivity  is  concerned.  Wool,  and  to  a  less 
extent  silk,  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  and  even  when  damp  feel 


84  CLOTHING 

warm,  unless  the  body  is  subjected  to  a  draught,  when  heat  is  lost 
by  evaporation.  Both  absorb  the  bodily  moisture  and  hold  the  heat. 
Solid  masses  of  cotton  and  linen,  on  the  contrary,  condense  mois- 
ture on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  heat  is  conducted  away,  requir- 
ing the  body  to  furnish  more  of  it  to  maintain  the  correct 
temperature;  the  moisture  these  textiles  take  up  enters  the  fibers,, 
the  pores  close,  the  circulation  of  air  ceases,  and  the  solid  cloth  lies 
in  close  contact  with  the  skin,  and  feels  wet  and  cold  against  the 
body,  for  moisture  is  evaporating  and  heat  is  passing  away.  The 
napped  surface  often  given  to  cotton  to  hold  the  air  and  thus  make  it 
feel  warm  soon  mashes  down;  and  loses  its  effect  as  cotton  lacks  the 
elasticity  which  wool  has.  For  out-of-door  life  in  cold  weather  the 
textiles  which  absorb  water  readily  and  conduct  the  heat  away  will 
soon  lower  the  bodily  temperature  unless  special  care  is  taken,  but 
those  that  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  keep  air  imprisoned  in  thei  r 
fibers  and  do  not  allow  the  moisture  in  them  to  evaporate  rapidly, 
have  these  factors  in  their  favor. 

The  loss  of  heat  by  convection  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  warm 
air  rises  and  cold  air  takes  its  place.  The  heat  from  the  body  thus 
is  rising  continually,  giving  the  effect  of  a  chimney  on  air  currents. 
\Vhni  a  person  is  lying  down  the  heat  no  longer  passes  up  the  length 
of  the  body,  but  rises  through  a  short  distance  along  the  entire 
length.  Moreover,  the  relaxed  body  burns  less  fuel  and  so  low- 
ers its  heat  supply.  For  this  reason  it  needs  added  covering 
when  recumbent. 

The  body  gives  off  heat  continually  by  radiation,  and  if  the 
clothing  is  not  sufficient  the  heat  may  pass  too  rapidly  for  health. 
Conductivity,  convection,  and  radiation  are  acting  together  con- 
tinually in  causing  loss  of  body  heat. 

Js  primarily  intended  to  conserve  bodily  heat  and  to 


make  chemical  regulation  unnecessary,  thus  freeing  energy  for  other 
purposes.  This  ideal  is  accomplished  when  clothing  is  adapted  to 
the  climate,  evenly  covers  the  body,  is  without  pressure,  and  keeps 
the  body  dry  and  clean.  Exposing  the  chest,  legs,  and  arms  in 
cold  weather,  as  is  customary  with  women  and  girls,  and  the  legs 
and  knees  of  children  menace  health.  The  joints  are  particularly 
sensitive  and  less  capable  of  resistance  to  cold,  and,  therefore,  in 
special  danger  when  exposed.  Clothing  should  prevent  undue 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  85 

evaporation  and  loss  of  heat,  but  not  interfere  with  the  perspira- 
tion. The  results  of  such  exposure  are  in  many  instances  cumu- 
lative rather  than  immediate,  and  therefore  not  realized,  for  the 
health  is  undermined  gradually  and  when  a  strain  comes,  breaks 
under  it. 

An  attempt  to  harden  the  body  by  exposure  is  seldom  a  success 
in  the  life  we  lead,  the  most  of  the  day  being  spent  in  overheated 
houses,  consequently  the  time  in  the  cold  air  is  short.  In  general, 
homes,  public  buildings,  street  cars,  and  railroad  trains  have  been 
overheated,  and  going  into  the  cold  and  dampness  of  the  outer  air 
from  summer  heat  draws  heavily  on  the  bodily  energy  to  maintain 
its  best  condition  unless  the  clothing  is  adequate.  When  coal  is 
scarce,  and  underheating  indoors  is  the  rule,  warmer  garments 
should  be  worn.  To  use  the  same  kind  of  light  clothing  with  the 
temperature  many  degrees  lower  than  is  customary  is  dangerous. 
The  menace  to  health  from  incorrect  clothing  is  many-sided,  and 
every  point  requires  due  consideration  before  it  is  possible  for  any 
one  to  select  the  covering  that  is  best. 

Keeping  Warm. — The  body  should  be  kept  moderately  warm. 
The  garment  next  to  the  skin  is  of  great  importance,  especially  in 
cold  weather.  Dwellers  in  towns  and  cities  live  chiefly  indoors  in 
winter,  and  the  garments  worn  should  be  adapted  largely  to  a  warm 
atmosphere.  When  going  into  the  outer  air,  extra  coverings  should 
keep  the  body  at  the  right  temperature.  If  conditions  are  such 
that  the  indoor  temperature  is  low,  a  knitted  combination  suit  of 
wool  and  cotton  may  seem  necessary  next  to  the  skin  for  those  who 
are  cold  blooded.  In  general,  however,  a  porous  union.garment  of 
linen  or  cotton  gives  adequate  heat  indoors.  Two  light-weight  gar- 
ments are  warmer  than  one  heavy  one,  consequently,  if  the  body 
feels  chilly,  a  second  piece  of  thin  underwear  put  under  or  over 
the  combination  suit  is  usually  enough.  The  union  suit  is  better 
than  shirt  and  drawers,  for  the  heat  is  more  evenly~3istfrbuted  than 
when  garments  overlap.  To  wear  too  little  clothing  wastes  the 
heat  of  the  body,  but  to  have  on  too  much  is  enervating  for  perspira- 
tion increases,  and  on  going  into  the  outer  air,  evaporation  of  the 
moisture  causes  loss  of  heat  and  a  feeling  of  chill  follows.  An 
underwear  fabric  that  is  so  thick  that  the  air  cannot  get  through  it 
is  in  reality  less  warm  than  those  that  are  loose  in  structure  and 


86  CLOTHING 

hold  the  air  in  the  meshes.  The  body  becomes  sensitive  if  too  heavy 
clothing  is  worn  during  the  day  indoors  or  too  warm  covering  is 
used  at  night.  Each  one  must  find  the  minimum  for  himself,  as 
there  are  fundamental  differences  in  people  in  their  need  of  covering. 
A  general  fault  is  to  wear  too  light  covering  when  going  into  the 
cold  air,  forgetting  that  indoors  the  temperature  was  summer  heat 
and  it  is  putting  a  heavy  demand  on  the  body  to  react  from  extreme 
cold  without  the  assistance  of  extra  clothing.  In  cold,  wet  weather 
the  legs,  feet,  arms,  and  chest  need  special  attention,  yet  it  is  no 
unusual  thing  to  see  these  parts  exposed  while  others  are  over- 
protected.  Heavy  furs  are  worn  about  the  neck  and  at  the  same 
time  thin  silk  stockings  and  low  shoes  are  on  the  feet.  Heavy 
wraps  will  be  worn  in  a  train  for  hours  and  the  wearer  will  then 
go  into  the  cold  outer  air  with  no  extra  protection.  Even  if  a 
severe  cold  is  not  taken,  the  physical  condition  is  lowered  and  the 
body  is  storing  up  difficulties  for  the  future.  Many  dislike  the 
look  of  heavy,  high  boots  and  wear  into  the  damp  street  the  low 
shoe  which  has  been  worn  in  the  warm  house ;  the  penalty,  however, 
is  being  exacted,  even  if  the  wearer  is  unconscious.  A  garment 
fitting  loosely  is  warmer  than  a  tight  one.  A  light  scarf  is  often 
sufficient  to  keep  the  bodily  heat  from  passing  away.  Even  thin 
veils  or  net  underwaists  will  help  to  keep  the  warm  air  from  pass- 
ing too  quickly.  The  Chinese  rely  on  a  lightly  padded  garment  or 
on  a  number  of  light  weight  ones,  one  over  the  other,  to  keep  them 
warm,  for  the  air  imprisoned  between  holds  the  body  to  the  normal 
temperature.  It  is  no  unusual  thing  for  those  who  go  out  in  the 
evening  to  remove  heavy  underwear  in  order  to  appear  in  low- 
necked  dresses.  If  the  temperature  of  the  place  to  which  they  go 
is  at  summer  heat,  and  a  wrap  is  at  hand  if  cold  air  is  suddenly 
brought  into  the  room  through  many  open  windows,  no  harm  may 
follow,  but  a  very  different  state  of  affairs  usually  occurs.  The  over- 
heated dancer  delights  to  feel  the  sudden  cold  on  the  perspirinir 
body  and  seeks  the  draught  rather  than  covering  the  body  from  it. 
So  serious  is  the  danger  from  lowering  the  temperature  even  a 
few  degrees  below  the  normal,  that  physicians  are  considering  with 
alarm  the  present  tendency  of  fashion  toward  inadequate  covering 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  body — in  the  winter  time  especially.  The 
thin  Georgette  waist  with  merely  a  lacy  camisole  under  it  is  draw- 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  87 

ing  on  the  energy  of  numbers  of  our  young  women  to  such  an 
extent  that  their  strength  is  being  sapped  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
body  temperature — a  condition  which  is  likely  to  result  in  a  lowered 
birth  rate  in  the  next  generation.  This  style  of  garment  may  well 
be  criticised  for  its  immodesty,  to  which  must  be  added  its  danger 
to  the  health  of  the  nation.  It  is  unthinkable  that  women  will  con- 
tinue thus  to  risk  the  better  physical  life  of  the  nation  for  the  sake 
of  fashion  and  personal  conceit,  especially  now,  when  the  war  has 
drawn  so  heavily  on  the  health  of  the  young  men. 
s  The  dwellers  in  Arctic  regions  wear  in  general  an  outer  coat  or 
garment  made  of  material  which  is  windproof  and  will  not  allow 
the  cold  air  or  dampness  to  pass  through.  Peary  wore  a  heavy 
duck  covering;  whalers  wear  khaki,  sailcloth,  or  duck;  and  the 
Esquimaux  use  frequently  a  scraped  sealskin  coat  with  hood  fitting 
down  on  the  forehead,  the  trousers  are  made  of  the  same,  are  loose 
and  roomy,  and  without  a  fly.  Inside  of  these,  next  to  the  skin, 
is  a  garment  of  wool,  of  fur  or  of  soft  bird  skins,  with  the  feathers 
turned  in.  This  last-named  garment  is  said  to  be  the  warmest  in 
the  world,  but  it  harbors  vermin.  Two  or  three  pairs  of  woolen 
stockings  and  light  sealskin  boots  are  worn.  No  pressure  is  allowed 
anywhere,  and  the  heat  of  the  body  is  retained  within  by  the  non- 
conductor next  to  the  skin  and  the  impervious  coat  outside, 

For  sleeping  out-of-doors  in  cold  weather,  in  addition  to  the  bed 
covering,  a  warm  union  suit,  a  bathrobe,  wool  bedsocks,  and  a  helmet 
of  wool  are  recommended. 

Keeping  Dry. — The  body  must  be  kept  dry  to  be  in  good  health. 
Too  warm  underwear  of  wool  will  cause  unnecessary  perspiration, 
the  products  of  which  collect  on  the  garment ;  therefore,  for  keeping 
dry  and  clean  a  linen  or  cotton  porous  mesh  garment  would  be  much 
more  sanitary.  A  solid  fabric  of  any  kind  next  to  the  skin  is  not 
hygienic,  for  it  becomes  wet  more  readily  than  the  porous  mesh. 
An  active  child  running  and  playing,  wearing  heavy  cotton  knitted 
underwear  with  a  napped  surface  may  be  damp  almost  all  day 
long — this  is  a  ready  way  of  taking  cold.  Dry,  warm  air  takes  up 
moisture  readily,  but  cold,  damp  air  does  so  slowly,  if  at  all,  and 
feels  colder  than  dry  air  even  at  the  same  temperature.  Water  is  a 
better  conductor  of  heat  than  dry  air,  and  if  next  to  the  skin  will 
conduct  it  away  through  evaporation  until  the  temperature  is  below 


88  CLOTHING 

the  point  of  health.  Every  effort  must  be  made,  therefore,  to  keep 
the  body  dry  by  having  the  right  sort  of  underwear  next  to  it.  An 
overwarm  atmosphere  will  cause  perspiration  and  the  textile  next  to 
the  skin  should  absorb  it  rapidly  and  let  it  pass  quickly.  Wool  pro- 
motes perspiration,  feels  dry  and  warm,  even  if  wet,  and  holds 
large  amounts  of  moisture,  but  for  many  reasons  it  is  not  the  best 
textile  next  to  the  skin;  nevertheless,  as  it  feels  comfortable  on  a 
cold  day,  it  is  worn  largely  by  those  who  have  not  given  much 
thought  to  ideal  clothing  conditions  for  the  body.  (See  Chapter  II, 
section  "  Wool  Properties/')  The  feet  must  be  kept  dry,  and  to  own 
overshoes,  from  sandals  to  goloshes,  should  be  regarded  as  an  abso- 
lute necessity.  If  the  feet  get  wet,  the  shoes  and  stockings  should 
be  changed  immediately  on  entering  the  house,  and  the  feet  should 
be  rubbed  with  cold  water  and  a  rough  cloth  to  increase  th£  circula- 
tion. Wet  feet  will  very  quickly  lower  the  temperature  to  a  dan- 
gerous point.  So  much  of  a  distaste  is  felt  for  rubbers  that'  it  is  an 
exceptional  thing  to  see  them  at  any  time  on  the  majority  of  young 
women,  and  often  thin-soled,  low  shoes  with  thin,  silk  stockings  are 
worn  on  the  snowiest  and  wettest  days  without  any  protection. 

Keeping  the  Body  Clean. — A  quick,  daily  sponge  bath  with  cold 
water  should  be  taken  by  everyone  in  normal  health.  A  hot  bath 
is  not  necessary  every  day,  but  should  be  taken  at  least  once  a  week 
in  cold  weather.  Clean  clothing  must  be  worn  next  to  the  skin,  but 
if  the  body  is  in  health,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  large  number  of 
clean  undergarments  weekly;  it  is  well  to  alternate  daily  the  gar- 
ment next  to  the  skin  with  another,  allowing  one  to  air  while  the 
other  is  in  service.  The  clothing  worn  during  the  day  should  be 
taken  off  at  night  and  aired  and  a  night  garment  take  the  place. 
Cotton  has  some  advantages  next  to  the  skin,  for  it  can  be  easily 
laundered  and  made  sterile  with  boiling  water  which  other  textiles 
will  not  stand.  Wool  worn  directly  next  to  the  body  and  carelessly 
laundered  is  not  as  good  as  a  porous  mesh  of  linen  or  cotton,  but 
linen  is  difficult  to  obtain  and  very  expensive  at  present.  The 
growth  of  germ  life  on  textiles  is  more  rapid  on  wool  than  on  silk, 
cotton  or  linen.  Clothing  so  made  that  it  is  difficult  to  wash  and 
exjM-nsive  to  clean  becomes  unsanitary  after  a  time.  The  habit  of 
making  removable  linings  for  clothing  so  that  they  can  he  laundered 
without  ditlieulty  is  hygienic  and  should  he  en< -oura^ed.  The  sweat 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  89 

glands  of  the  body  give  off  daily  about  50  ounces  of  secretion,  and 
the  clothing  takes  this  up  and  needs  cleansing  at  intervals,  espe- 
cially if  the  garment  is  in  constant  use.  The  perspiration  must 
pass  that  the  body  may  be  cooled,  but  to  keep  it  in  the  garment 
against  the  skin  is  not  wholesome  for  the  pores  become  clogged, 
which  is  dangerous.  Clothing  which  can  be  washed  frequently  has 
great  advantages;  therefore,  the  laundry  becomes  an  important  fac- 
tor in  health.  Steam  laundries  properly  conducted  are  more  apt  to 
sterilize  clothing  than  the  home  laundry,  and  the  latter  may  be  a 
menace  to  health  if  clothes  are  not  boiled  and  if  air  and  sunshine 
are  lacking  and  disease  is  present.  The  sweatshop  manufacture  of 
garments,  so  common  in  large  industrial  cities,  may  also  communi- 
cate disease  if  the  clothing  has  been  made  when  contagious  disease 
was  present  in  the  shop.  The  dust  of  the  street  should  be  brushed 
out  of  constantly  worn  garments  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease. 
Veils,  hats,  and  neckwear  may  also  be  carriers  of  infection  unless 
care  is  taken  to  buy  only  from  places  which  do  not  rely  on  sweat- 
shop workrooms  and  from  a  department  store  which  refuses  to  allow 
them  to  go  out  on  approval. 

Keeping  the  Body  Well  Ventilated. — Porous,  light-weight  gar- 
ments are  better  for  keeping  the  body  in  good  condition  than  solid 
woven  ones,  for  air  passes  through  them.  The  skin  needs  ventila- 
tion as  much  as  the  lungs.  Even  the  outer  clothing  should  not  be 
impervious  to  air  for  any  length  of  time.  The  habit  of  wearing 
dress  linings  that  are  so  closely  woven  that  air  cannot  readily  get 
through  them  is  not  good,  but  those  of  thin  silk  or  net  allow  for 
ventilation.  Women  are  more  apt  to  wear  lighter  and  more  porous 
clothing  than  men.  The  heavy  clothing  next  to  the  skin,  such  as 
the  thick  wool  or  napped  cotton  undershirt  and  drawers,  or  union 
suit,  or  the  closely  woven  muslin  combinations,  the  starched  shirt 
and  collar,  the  heavy  wool  suit  and  waistcoat  worn  by  many  men 
really  defy  the  access  of  air  to  the  skin  during  all  the  day.  Women 
are  learning  that  the  thick  rubber  waterproof  coat  is  uncomfortable 
from  its  lack  of  ventilation,  and  they  are  discarding  it  generally 
for  a  light  weight  and  rainproof  cloth.  Porous  underwear  has  long 
been  made  for  men,  and  has  appeared  to  some  extent  for  women, 
and  some  of  the  knit  underwear  is  in  fairly  loose  mesh  and  is  made 
for  both  men  and  women.  Some  women,  appreciating  the  advan- 


90  CLOTHING 

tage  of  the  very  porous  varieties,  are  buying  men's  garments  and 
altering  them  to  suit  their  needs.  It  is  a  mistake  to  wear  solidly 
woven  muslin  underwear  directly  next  to  the  skin  as  many  men  do, 
for  the  moment  perspiration  enters  it,  the  pores  close  and  the  muslin 
lies  close  to  the  body,  stopping  the  ventilation  and  causing  a  feeling 
of  chill  as  the  heat  is  conducted  away  from  the  body  too  rapidly.  It 
would  be  better  to  wear  one  of  the  varieties  of  porous  mesh  shirts 
first,  in  either  winter  or  summer,  and  put  the  muslin  one  over,  if 
desired.  The  same  weight  of  porous  underwear  of  cotton  or  linen 
is  worn  by  many,  winter  and  summer. 

Keeping  the  Body  Unhampered  and  Comfortable. — The  body 
should  be  unrestricted.  Tight  waists,  shoes,  hats,  corsets,  collars, 
neckwear,  belts,  and  garters  impede  the  circulation  and  keep  the 
individual  from  doing  efficient  work.  Tight  skirts  are  often  dan- 
gerous and  are  always  impeding.  Many  accidents  have  occurred 
through  them,  especially  on  the  railroads  where  damages  are  often 
refused,  when  the  company  successfully  points  out  the  skirt  has 
been  the  main  cause  of  the  accident.  Tight  clothing  about  the  waist 
and  abdomen  prevents  the  necessary  exp'ansion  and  is  therefore  in- 
jurious. Wherever  the  clothing  is  tight,  the  blood  does  not  circulate 
as  it  should,  and  such  pressure  should  be  avoided  so  that  the  normal 
functions  of  the  body  may  proceed  without  interruption.  Men's 
clothing  in  general  is  better  in  this  particular  than  women's,  but  it 
has  too  much  weight  in  the  heavy  underwear,  the  thick  wool  suit, 
and  the  heavy  overcoat.  The  belt,  the  tight  h'at,  and  the  starched 
stand-up  collar  interfere  with  the  circulation.  The  hat  should  be 
light  in  weight,  well  balanced,  well  ventilated,  and  without  pres- 
sure on  the  scalp.  The  unventilated  derby,  high  hat,  and  motor 
cap  worn  by  men  have  distinct  disadvantages.  Experiments  show 
that  the  thermometer  under  them  rises  many  degrees  higher  than 
the  outside  air — with  the  air  78°  outside,  the  temperature  in  an  un- 
ventilated motor  cap  was  98°.  Women's  hats  are  frequently  better 
than  men's,  for  they  are  lighter  and  looser.  There  should  be  a  space 
above  the  crown  of  the  head.  The  summer  hat  of  straw  should  be 
so  lined  that  the  sun's  rays  do  not  strike  the  head ;  a  dark  lining  is 
the  best.  The  present  unrestricted  neck  in  women's  drees  is 
an  advantage  over  the  high,  tight,  boned  collars  of  a  short  time 
ago.  Corsets  are  injurious  if  they  are  tight,  do  not  fit  well,  do  not 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  91 

allow  ventilation  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  and  exert  a  heavy 
downward  pressure  on  the  organs.  They  do  not  need  to  be  harmful 
if  they  are  loose  at  and  above  the  waist,  are  made  of  light  weight, 
porous  material,  fit  perfectly,  but  not  closely,  and  the  suspended 
garters  are  not  made  so  tight  that  there  is  a  drag  on  the  body.  They 
should  not  interfere  with  active  work,  but  allow  for  reaching, 
stretching,  and  bending.  If  the  muscles  are  strong  and  the  gown 
suspended  from  the  shoulders,  the  corset  is  unnecessary.  Garters 


FIQ.  5. — The  fashionable  shoe. 

worn  around  the  leg  are  apt  to  be  so  tight  that  the  circulation  is 
much  impeded.  Fatigue  is  caused  from  working  with  cramped 
muscles,  and  overfatigue  is  a  danger  signal. 

Shoes  should  be  the  shape  of  the  feet  and  wide  enough  to  allow 
room  for  them  to  expand  as  they  are  pressed  on  the  floor.  These 
conditions  are  seldom  present  in  women's  shoes.  (See  Fig.  5  for 
the  fashionable  form  of  the  shoe. )  The  shape  of  the  normal  foot  is 
straight  on  the  inner  side  from  the  big  toe  joint  to  the  end  of  the 
toe  (Figs.  6  and  9).  The  majority  of  women  have  distorted  feet 
from  wearing  a  short,  narrow,  pointed  shoe  with  a  high  heel,  for 
the  big  toe  is  twisted  around  throwing  the  joint  into  prominence 
and  bunions  are  frequently  formed  at  the  joint  (Fig.  7).  The 
narrow  shoe  does  not  allow  the  foot  to  lie  flat  on  the  ground,  hence 


92 


CLOTHING 


the  flesh  is  folded  together  and  callous  places  come  under  the  ball 
of  the  foot.  The  high  heel  throws  the  foot  forward  into  the  point 
and  the  toes  are  crowded  together,  consequently,  corns  appear  be- 
tween the  toes.  The  high  heel  prevents  the  body  from  taking  its 
correct  poise  and  its  weight  is  not  well  supported.  Strain  comes  on 
the  arches  of  the  feet  and  they  often  weaken  and  break  down,  caus- 
ing flat  foot  (Fig.  8).  The  bad  poise  of  the  body  makes  an 
undue  strain  on  the  muscles  all  the  way  up,  frequently  causing 


FIG.  6. 


Fio.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


Fxa.  9. 


FIG.  6. — Comfortable  shoe  of  correct  shape. 
FIG.  7. — Foot  distorted  in  shoe. 
FIG.  8.— Flat-foot. 
FIG.  9. — Normal  foot. 

(Courtesy  of  Hygiene  for  the  Worker.) 

rheumatic  pains  and  even  eye  trouble.  The  most  serious  arraign- 
ment by  physicians  of  wearing  this  kind  of  shoe  is  the  increase  of 
internal  trouble  among  women  on  account  of  them.  There  are  two 
arches:  The  front,  anterior  or  transverse,  and  the  back  or  longi- 
tudinal arch.  The  pointed-toed,  high-heeled  shoes  cause  the  feet 
to  toe  out,  but  the  correct  way  to  walk  is  with  the  feet  straight  ahead 
in  Indian  fashion.  Walking  with  the  feet  turned  out  weakens  the 
insteps  or  longitudinal  arches,  and  the  high-heeled  shoes  throw  the 
weight  of  the  body  forward  on  the  ball  of  the  foot  and  weaken  the 
transverse  arch. 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  93 

It  is  no  unusual  thing  to  hear  women  excuse  their  wearing  of 
the  fashionable  shoe  on  account  of  the  height  of  their  insteps,  but 
this  does  not  require  them  to  wear  a  short,  narrow  pointed  shoe  with 
the  high  heel  under  the  instep  instead  of  the  heel  of  the  foot.  If 
any  one  has  long  wrorn  incorrectly  shaped  shoes  the  foot  has  probably 
changed  from  the  normal,  and  when  she  begins  to  wear  the  correct 
shoe  she  experiences  discomfort  as  the  foot  endeavors  to  resume 
the  correct  shape  adapted  to  holding  the  weight  of  the  body.  A 
woman  who  looks  with  horror  at  the  Chinese  shoe  will  be  quite 
placid  over  a  similar  maiming  of  her  own  feet.  If  any  one  wishes 
to  know  how  high  the  arch  of  her  foot  is  she  can  press  her  bare 
foot  on  damp  sand  and  note  the  impression  made  (Fig.  9),  or  she 
can  put  a  piece  of  paper  under  her  foot  and  draw  the  shape  as 
it  touches  the  floor.  A  very  high  arch  will  be  indicated  by  the 
almost,  if  not  complete,  separation  of  the  two  parts  of  the  foot. 
Feet  differ  greatly  in  the  height  of  the  instep  and  a  correct  shoe  for 
one  may  not  be  the  perfect  shape  for  another.  If  the  arch  is  quite 
low  or  broken  down  a  very  low  heel  and  a  flat  shoe  are  likely  to  be 
comfortable.  When  conditions  are  extreme,  however,  an  orthopedic 
physician  should  be  consulted.  The  better  class  of  shoe  stores  are 
now  providing  a  special  salesman  to  give  advice  on  this  subject  and 
they  have  various  types  of  hygienic  shoes  on  sale.  An  increasing 
number  of  the  best  factories  are  giving  attention  to  the  needs  of 
nurses  and  other  professional  and  working  women  and  providing  a 
shoe  that  is  the  shape  of  the  foot,  and  also  finishing  it  in  an  attrac- 
tive manner.  Supports  of  various  kinds  are  being  made  to  aid  weak 
ankles  and  arches.  Some  of  these  shoes  are  not  high  in  price,  but 
good  leather  is  costly  at  the  present  time,  and  enduring  shoes  re- 
quire the  best  of  materials  and  workmanship.  A  shoe  must  not  be 
too  loose,  or  it  will  rub  on  the  flesh,  bringing  blisters  and  callous 
places.  It  should  fit  well  about  the  heel  and  into  the  instep,  that 
the  foot  may  be  supported. 

The  tendency  to  wear  too  short  a  shoe  is  prevalent  among  men 
as  well  as  among  women.  In  the  first  days  of  the  war  the  soldiers 
were  found  to  have  incorrectly  shaped  shoes  which  interfered  with 
their  endurance  on  long  marches.  A  study  was  made  of  the  best 
shaped  shoe  for  service,  with  the  result  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
army  was  increased.  Each  outfitting  station  was  provided  with  a 


94  CLOTHING 

special  instrument  for  determining  the  correct  shape  of  shoe  for  any 
man.  Self -supporting  women  are  called  to  stand  for  long  hours  in 
the  hospitals,  in  elevators,  in  street  cars,  and  in  business  as  well  as 
in  their  homes,  and  much  of  the  fatigue  experienced  comes  from 
the  incorrect  shape  of  the  shoe.  A  wise  woman  will  give  attention 
to  this  matter  and  be  correctly  shod  during  her  hours  of  work,  even 
if  at  the  end  of  the  day  when  she  is  sitting  most  of  the  time  she 
gives  in  to  fashion's  decree  and  wears  the  high-heeled  shoe.  If  any 
one  insists  upon  wearing  pointed  shoes  during  her  working  day  she 
should  at  least  obey  the  following  rules :  The  width  across  the  ball 
of  the  foot  should  be  as  wide  as  the  foot  when  pressed  on  the  ground, 
the  heel  should  be  broad  and  not  high  and  directly  under  the  heel  of 
the  foot.  The  shoe  should  be  at  least  one-half  inch  longer  than  the/i 
foot  to  allow  the  point  of  the  shoe  to  come  well  beyond  the  toes.CAJI 
flexible  shank  in  the  shoe  is  an  advantage,  as  the  muscles  are  thut/f 
exercised  and  become  stronger.*)  If  the  heel  is  low  the  foot  will  not/ 
be  crowded  into  the  point  of  the  shoe.  It  is  desirable  that  the  foot/ 
should  be  ventilated.  The  low  shoe  in  the  house  has  advantages 
over  the  high  one,  and  gaiters  can  be  put  on  when  going  into  the 
cold  air.  The  wearing  of  sandals  in  summer  is  good  and  the  canvas 
low  shoe  is  better  than  the  one  of  heavy  leather  in  the  hot  weather. 
Rubber  soles  heat  the  feet  and  should  be  avoided  unless  the  ground 
is  damp.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  children  should  have  the 
right  sort  of  shoes,  or  they  may  suffer  for  life  from  the  thought- 
lessness of  the  parents  in  this  particular.  The  wearing  of  old  run- 
down, high-heeled  slippers  about  the  house  is  bad  for  the  ankles  and 
for  the  poise  of  the  body.  The  muscles  are  strained  and  weakened 
and  the  instep  injured. 

There  has  been  of  late  years  considerable  improvement  in  the 
weight  of  women's  clothing — heavy  crinoline  has  gone  from  the 
skirts  and  there  is  less  material  used ;  few  petticoats,  if  any,  are 
worn,  a  bloomer  taking  the  place  in  cold  weather ;  combination  gar- 
ments have  succeeded  the  overlapping  two-piece  ones;  heavily  lined 
waists,  bones,  and  belts  have  disappeared ;  and  outer  garments  are 
in  one  piece  to  a  great  extent  and  are  light  in  weight.  At  one  time, 
not  so  many  years  ago,  it  was  no  unusual  thing  for  the  thicknesses 
about  the  waist  (on  account  of  the  double  muslin  belts  on  numerous 
garments)  to  count  up  to  18  or  20  layers.  At  present,  five  to  six  ! 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  95 

layers  are  considered  sufficient.  As  few  garments  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  secure  warmth  is  the  ideal ;  a  porous  union  suit,  a  corset,  a 
muslin  combination  or  a  brassiere,  bloomers  or  a  petticoat,  and  a 
one-piece  dress  is  the  usual  amount,  weighing  from  four  to  six 
pounds  even  in  winter.  This  is  a  great  step  forward  in  health  for 
women,  and  men  would  well  eliminate  much  of  their  heavy 
wool  clothing. 

The  Part  Textiles  Play. — Each  textile  has  special  qualities  which 
have  their  effect  on  the  body.  These  properties  can  be  minimized 
by  making  the  article  porous  or  can  be  increased  by  the  solidity  of 
the  weave.  It  is  now  conceded  that  weave  has  much  to  do  with  the 
effect  of  any  of  the  textiles  next  to  the  skin.  Wool  is  of  the  highest 
service  in  winter  weather  for  out-of-door  wear,  for  it  keeps  the  cold 
air  from  the  body  and  does  not  conduct  the  warm  air  away  from  it. 
For  underwear  next  to  the  skin  it  feels  comfortable  and  has  some 
recommendations,  but  many  drawbacks  (see  Chapter  II,  section 
"  Properties  of  Wool "),  for  it  cannot  stand  hot  water  and  rubbing 
in  the  laundry  without  shrinking,  unless  the  greatest  care  is  taken, 
hence,  is  often  unsanitary  after  being  washed  a  few  times.  (See 
Chapter  XII,  section  "  Laundry.")  The  poor  qualities  of  wool  are 
lessened  by  combining  it  with  other  textiles ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  knitted  garment  made  principally  of  cotton  has  lost  some  good 
qualities  belonging  to  wool. 

^  Wool  hosiery  has  good  and  bad  points.  The  hand-knitted  stock- 
ing, made  of  a  good  quality  combed  wool,  feels  soft  and  warm  to  the 
feet  and  more  comfortable  for  long  hikes  in  cold  weather  (while 
the  wool  is  still  pliable)  than  cotton,  which  is  harsher  and  feels 
colder.  Such  hosiery  is  expensive.  Machine-made  stockings  of 
cotton  and  wool  are  less  satisfactory  than  the  all-wool  hand-knitto^ 
ones  when  they  are  new.  If,  however,  the  feet  perspire  much  or  the 
wool  stockings  are  carelessly  washed,  shrinking  occurs  and  the 
fabric  becomes  hard  and  tight  on  the  feet,  and  does  not  allow  suffi- 
cient ventilation,  hence  the  good  points  are  lost.  Wearing  wool 
stockings  indoors  in  a  warm  atmosphere  keeps  the  feet  overheated 
and  is  apt  to  make  them  sensitive.  If  wool  stockings  are  worn  out 
of  doors  it  is  well  to  change  them  for  a  lighter,  less  heating  kind 
when  in  a  warm  house. 

Cotton  is  of  great  use  for  undermuslins  and  for  summer  cloth- 


96  CLOTHING 

ing,  and  in  normal  times  the  price  is  low,  consequently  it  can  be 
bought  by  all — it  is  the  universal  fabric.  (See  Chapter  III,  section 
u  Properties  of  Cotton.")  For  underwear  next  to  the  skin,  cotton 
is  not  advisable  if  it  is  solidly  woven  like  a  muslin  or  thickly 
knitted  and  napped,  for  it  keeps  the  body  moist  and  conducts  away 
the  heat,  but  when  made  in  an  open  mesh,  these  poorer  qualities  are 
lessened,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition 
is  an  advantage.  As  it  is  easily  laundered  it  is  useful  for  dresses 
for  children. 

Linen  has  the  best  properties  for  underwear,  especially  when 
the  fabric  is  porous,  for  it  keeps  the  body  clean  and  dry  and  launders 
readily.  It  conducts  the  heat  from  the  body,  consequently  feels 
cool  when  solidly  woven  but  comfortable  when  in  a  mesh.  It  will 
be  hard  to  obtain  until  the  flax  industry  is  again  in  running  order 
and  will  be  very  expensive.  Unions  of  linen  and  cotton  are  being 
made  for  underwear,  but  are  also  high  in  price.  A  porous  cotton 
underwear  makes  the  best  and  cheapest  substitute  for  linen  mesh  at 
the  present  time. 

Silk  has  many  excellent  qualities  for  both  outer  and  under- 
clothing. Its  high  price  puts  it  out  of  reach  of  the  majority  of 
people.  In  good  qualities  it  wears  well  as  underwear,  and  if  care  is 
taken  will  launder  satisfactorily,  and  hence  may  be  a  good  invest- 
ment. (See  Chapter  IV,  section  "  Properties  of  Silk/') 

Summing  Up  Efficient  Clothing. — Having  considered  the 
many  phases  of  health  in  clothing,  the  ideals  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  There  sho^ld_Jie__a^_fewgarments  worn  as  possible  to 
secure  warmTh,  lie  weight  should  be  light,  the  body  unrestricted, 
the  covering  even,  and  providing  for  good  ventilation.  If  extra 
warmth  is  needed,  a  light  undergarment  can  be  put  over  the  one 
next  to  the  skin.  The  garment  next  to  the  skin  should  be  porous, 
easily  kept  clean,  and  of  a  fiber  and  texture  to  keep  the  body  dry. 
Double-fold  underwear  is  manufactured,  made  of  porous  cotton 
mesh  and  of  light  wool,  but  as  these  textiles  react  differently  in  the 
laundry,  it  is  a  question  whether  two  separate  garments  are  not 
more  satisfactory.  A  union  garment  is  preferable  to  two  pieces,  for. 
it  covers  the  body  without  overlapping  at  the  waist.  It  should  be 
selected  to  preserve  the  heat  of  the  body  in  the  temperature  in 
which  the  most  of  the  day  will  be  passed.  To  remain  in  an  office  all 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  97 

day  in  summer  heat  and  wear  thick  woolen  underwear,  a  heavy 
worsted  suit,  and  a  waistcoat  of  the  same,  as  many  men  do,  is  de- 
pleting. TJJg^mlergarment  should  be  the  principal  means  of  re- 
taining EeaTand  the  remainder  of  the  clothing  can  be  for  drapery. 
Those  who  are  indoors  most  of  the  day  do  not  need  as  heavy  under- 
wear as  those  who  are  most  of  the  time  in  the  cold  air.  The  out- 
of-door  covering  should  not  be  so  heavy  that  it  wearies  the  wearer. 
Two  light-weight  garments  (a  coat  and  sweater,  for  instance)  are 
often  warmer  than  one  heavy  solid  one. 

Shoes  may  be  light  indoors,  but  when  going  into  the  cold  air  the 
sole  of  the  shoe  and  the  upper  should  be  sufficiently  heavy  to  pro- 
tect the  feet  fr6m  the  cold  and  damp.  Gaiters  or  high  shoes  should 
be  worn  if  it  is  wet  or  cold.  Rubbers  should  be  worn  in  damp  or 
wet  weather.  The  shoe,  during  the  working  hours,  at  least,  should 
conform  to  the  shape  of  the  foot  and  have  low,  flat  heels.  If  one  is 
sitting,  the  pointed-toed,  high-heeled  shoe  is  less  injurious. 

Older  people  feel  the  cold  more  than  the  younger  ones,  and 
should  be  kept  warm,  consequently  wool  may  be  the  only  comfort- 
able textile  for  either  underwear  or  outer  wear.  It  would  be  well, 
however,  for  them  to  try  the  effect  of  a  porous  knit  cotton  or  linen 
shirt  under  a  light-weight  union  garment  of  wool  and  cotton,  and 
see  if  it  is  not  sufficient.  A  very  heavy  outer  coat  is  too  taxing  to 
their  strength  and  a  light-weight  coat  with  a  warm  sweater  or 
knitted  waistcoat  under  it  will  be  better  for  them. 

The  health  of  the  little  child  depends  much  on  clothing.  A 
baby  is  warmer  than  older  people  and  is  often  too  hot  in  its  wool 
coverings.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  changes  and  must  be  so  dressed 
that  a  sudden  lowering  of  temperature  does  not  take  its  bodily  heat 
below  the  normal.  An  all-wool  shirt  next  to  the  body  is  generally 
too  heating  in  a  warm  house,  and  has  also  the  objections  stated  for 
wool  underwear  in  general.  ( See  Chapter  II,  section  "  Properties  of 
Wool/'  and  Chapter  X,  section  "  The  Wardrobe.")  A  cotton  and 
wool  or  a  silk  and  wool  shirt  is  better.  The  band  for  an  infant  can 
be  of  the  same  materials,  and  not  of  all  wool.  An  all-wool  band  is 
apt  to  shrink  in  laundering  and  constrict  the  body.  It  is  well  to 
cut  it  on  the  bias,  for  it  gives  better  to  the  movements  of  the  body. 
The  edges  should  be  unhemmed  and  the  band  loose  enough  for 
breathing,  crying,  and  moving  without  producing  pressure  on  the 
7 


98  CLOTHING 

body.  Rubber  diapers  are  too  heating  and  should  not  be  used.  As 
few  bands  as  possible  should  be  about  the  body,  consequently  all  of 
the  garments  should  be  hung  from  the  shoulders.  The  dresses  should 
be  unstarched  and  have  little  trimming.  The  baby  should  be  kept 
dry  and  the  clothing  should  be  changed  immediately,  if  it  becomes 
wet.  Shoes  must  conform  absolutely  to  the  shape  of  the  feet  and  be 
amply  large.  Babies'  feet  are  often  twisted  out  of  shape  by  shoes 
that  are  the  wrong  shape  and  too  small  in  size.  It  is  better  to 
throw  away  a  pair  of  shoes  than,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  to  con- 
tinue their  use  when  they  are  not  amply  large. 

For  out-of-doors  older  children  should  be  evenly,  lightly,  and 
warmly  dressed,  according  to  the  temperature.  A  heavy  napped 
cotton  garment  next  to  the  skin  is  apt  to  be  wet  with  perspiration 
from  the  play  and  running,  and  is  not  hygienic,  and  the  all-wool 
garment  is  too  hot.  The  porous  knit  linen  or  cotton  is  again  more 
sanitary  next  to  the  body  both  indoors  and  out-of-doors,  for  it 
keeps  it  dry  and  well  ventilated.  The  feet,  ankles,  knees,  and  legs 
must  be  kept  warm  by  stout  shoes,  leggings,  or  heavy  stockings.  It 
is  especially  necessary  to  keep  children  sufficiently  warm,  for  they 
need  reserve  energy  for  growth.  Bloomers  are  better  for  little 
girls  than  petticoats,  and  can  be  made  to  match  the  dress  or  to  be 
in  harmony  with  it.  A  child's  clothing  needs  frequent  washing, 
consequently  cotton  goods  have  "advantages  for  easy  washing  and 
sterilization.  The  outer  coats  should  be  light  in  weight;  a  light  coat 
with  an  extra  garment  underneath  will  be  better  than  a  heavy  coat, 
for  it  will  not  fatigue  the  body,  and  on  warmer  days  it  need  not  be 
worn.  There  should  not  be  anything  to  bind  or  weigh  down  on  the 
body  of  the  growing  child. 

Dangers. — There  are  actual  dangers  lurking  in  clothing  if  it  is 
soiled,  if  the  dye  is  likely  to  come  out  and  be  absorbed  by  the  body,  if 
the  laundering  has  been  carelessly  done,  if  the  clothing  has  been 
made  in  tenements  where  disease  is  present,  thus  carrying  infection, 
or  if  nets,  veils,  hats,  and  other  accessories  are  not  sterile  when  they 
are  bought. 

Success  in  life  depends  on  the  physical  condition  as  well  as  on 
mental  faculties.  One  out  of  three  of  our  young  men  were  unfit  for 
military  service.  If  girls  had  been  subjected  to  this  test,  they  would 
have  fallen  further  below  this  average,  as  their  clothing  prevents 


CLOTHING  AND  HEALTH  99 

development,  and  is  often  really  injurious.  Health  from  every 
standpoint  needs  greater  emphasis  in  the  schools  of  the  United 
States  so  that  the  next  generation  may  be  more  physically  fit,  and 
clothing  needs  consideration  as  well  as  other  factors.  We  are  here 
to  bear  burdens,  not  to  be  burdens. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  different  conditions  must  clothing  meet  to  be  considered  hygienic? 

2.  What  are  the  ideals  for  outer  clothing  that  will  healthfully  cover  the 

body? 

3.  What  are  the  ideals  for  adequate  underwear  and  corsets? 

4.  What  are  the  ideals  for  correct  shoes? 

5.  What  effect  on  the  vitality  will  follow  disobedience  to  these  laws? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  State  the  laws  of  health  in  relation  to  clothing,  and  select  materials  and 

accessories    for   winter    and    summer    under    and    outer   wear    which 
obey  these  laws. 

2.  From  the  above,  plan  inexpensive  outfits  for  the  following: 

a  An  infant. 

5  A  child  of  school  age. 

c  A  woman  working  under  exposed  conditions. 

3.  Consider  the  possible  dangers  in  the  choice  and  use  of  clothing;  give 

concrete   illustrations  of   the   effect  on  the  body,   and   the  remedial 
procedure. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING 

The  Shopping  Situation. — New  and  difficult  economic  condi- 
tions confronted  the  households  of  the  country  during  the  war. 
Spending  money  in  the  customary  way  was  neither  wise  nor  patri- 
otic. New  methods  had  to  be  learned.  Conditions  which  have  fol- 
lowed the  war,  in  the  necessary  reconstruction  of  industry  in 
Europe  and  also  in  America,  presented  different  problems — if  any- 
thing more  serious.  American  business  men  and  social  workers, 
after  considering  the  industrial  situation,  have  sounded  a  note  of 
warning  to  America  and  proclaimed  it  as  her  duty  to  help  solve  the 
critical  situation  abroad  by  economizing  in  our  use  of  materials  and 
hastening  industrial  readjustment  so  that  our  industry  can  produce 
at  its  full  capacity  in  order  to  supply  Europe.  Women  are  of  para- 
mount influence  in  the  textile  and  clothing  industries,  and  their 
cooperation  in  national  conservation  is  essential. 

Prices  of  commodities  have  reached  a  higher  level  than  before 
the  war  largely  on  account  of  increased  labor  costs  and  scarcity  of 
supplies.  These  facts  must  be  faced  and  offset  by  increased 
intelligence  in  buying  and  by  purchasing  only  when  absolutely 
necessary.  The  prices  of  labor  are  not  likely  to  go  down  for  some 
time,  and  costs  will  remain  high.  The  main  hope  of  the  present 
in  coping  with  increased  costs  is,  therefore,  to  buy  with  so  much 
wisdom  that  more  is  obtained  for  the  money  than  before,  and  to 
use  methods  of  care  and  conservation  of  commodities  that  their 
life  is  lengthened. 

The  family  buyer  of  to-day  (the  wife  and  mother  usually  holds 
this  office,  at  least  until  the  children  grow  up)  needs  more  than  ever 
before  to  know  how  to  spend  money,  to  estimate  the  household 
wants,  to  understand  values,  to  determine  between  needs  and  mere 
desires,  and  to  be  of  service  to  the  industries  of  the  country  by 
appreciating  the  difficulties  that  confront  them,  the  possibilities  of 
future  success,  and,  instead  of  considering  foreign  goods  to  be  more 
desirable,  to  demand  the  best  of  American  factories.  Women, 
therefore,  must  understand  their  business  as  buyers  even  as  a  wise 

100 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  •  :    lOl 

producer  knows  his,  or  fail  in  their  economic  duty  as  worthy  citi- 
zens. They  must  no  longer  stand  aside  and  allow  the  thoughtless 
and  extravagant  to  rule  the  market.  A  wise  spender  of  the  present 
must  know  her  effect  upon  the  manufacture  of  goods  in  the  United 
States,  and  also  upon  retail  selling  and  exert  her  influence  both  to 
improve  the  product  and  the  distribution  when  it  is  needed.  In 
order  to  do  this  with  intelligence  she  needs  the  best  training  and 
experience.  The  majority  of  women  have  bought  lavishly  in  the 
past,  for  money  has  been  available  and  luxurious  dressing  has  been 
the  rule.  The  sudden  change  to  higher  prices,  reduced  supplies, 
and  often  no  larger  incomes  finds  many  unprepared  for  the  respon- 
sibilities which  have  come  to  them. 

The  Working  Basis.1 — Intelligence  in  shopping  requires  a 
well-organized  plan  of  annual  expenditures.  (See  Chapter  X,  sec- 
tion "The  Clothing  Division  of  a  Budget.")  The  purchaser, 
whether  for  herself  or  for  the  family,  must  have  a  basis  on  which  to 
make  her  estimates.  Hit-or-miss  buying  is  never  economic.  '  In 
many  families  the  percentage  of  income  used  for  clothing  is  entirely 
too  large,  and  such  items  as  food,  recreation,  and  higher  life  have 
suffered  in  consequence.  If  the  buyer  knows  how  much  clothing 
income  to  expect  annually,  she  can  divide  it  among  the  members  of 
the  family  as  seems  wisest.  For  instance,  in  a  family  of  five  adults, 
the  division  is  often  equal,  The  income  might  be  $5000  a  year, 
which  would  give  about  $625  (one-eighth  of  it;  some  allow  more 
than  this)  for  clothing,  and  thus  each  one  would  have  $125  for 
the  year's  supply.  When  the  buyer  of  the  family  or  the  individual 
consumer  faces  the  fact  that  under  and  outer  clothing,  shoes,  stock- 
ings, hats,  and  miscellaneous  articles  are  all  to  be  bought  from  the 
allotment,  she  realizes  that  great  care  has  to  be  taken  in  selection, 
to  utilize  the  money  wisely.  If  the  family  lives  in  a  large  city,  and 
is  trying  to  appear  to  be  quite  well-to-do,  $125  for  each  for  the 
year  is  not  large,  yet  a  $5000  income  is  more  than  many  profes- 
sional men  are  getting  and  they  are  supporting  large  families  upon 
it.  If  more  than  12  per  cent.,  or  one-eighth,  is  taken  for  clothing, 
other  items  must  be  reduced  in  proportion.  (See  Chapter  X.) 

With  prices  higher  than  before  the  war,  the  problem  of  cloth- 
ing has  increased.  Supposing  the  income  is  $3000  a  year  in  a  family 

irThe  Business  of  the  Household,  Taber,  Lippincott's  Home  Manuals, 
deals  in  a  clear,  detailed  manner  with  the  conduct  of  the  expense  account 
and  the  budget. 


102  CLOTHING 

of  five  of  which  three  are  young  children.  About  $375  per  year 
would  be  the  basis  for  clothing  expenditures,  if  one-eighth  of  the 
income  were  taken.  If  the  father  and  mother  each  took  $125, 
there  would  be  left  $125  for  the  three  children.  In  the  industrial 
population  of  large  cities,  families  of  five  are  trying  to  live  on 
$900  per  year,  and  sometimes  even  on  less.  Yet  late  returns 
(September,  1919)  give  $1500-$1600  as  a  minimum  requirement 
for  the  annual  budget  for  a  family  of  five  at  the  present  time. 
Many  incomes  have  risen,  but  the  results  of  spending  are  no  better 
than  from  the  smaller  income  before  the  war.  The  need  of  intelli- 
gence in  the  buyer  of  clothing  is  great  in  incomes  below  the  mini- 
mum, yet  it  is  frequently  lacking.  In  the  majority  of  families  there 
has  been  no  regular  amount  set  aside  for  clothing  from  the  stand- 
point of  a  specified  percentage  of  the  income.  The  mother  knows 
approximately  what  is  to  be  spent  and  buys  more  or  less  wisely  when 
she  has  money  or  feels  the  need. 

In  some  families  money  comes  easily  and  no  accounting  is  asked 
of  the  buyer.  In  other  households  money  for  clothing  is  difficult 
to  obtain  from  the  holder  of  the  purse  strings.  Many  women,  often 
unsuccessfully,  urge  a  statement  of  what  there  is  to  spend  from 
the  head  of  the  family,  that  they  may  not  be  completely  in  the 
dark.  On  the  other  hand,  the  buyer  is  sometimes  urged  to  a  strict 
accounting  which  she  does  not  know  how  to  give.  There  is  not 
always  extravagance  in  buying  the  clothing;  in  fact,  there  is  often 
an  effort  for  economy,  but  there  is  lack  of  business  knowledge  and 
system  in  both  the  money  maker  and  the  buyer.  The  result  is  that 
money  is  dealt  out  by  the  former  in  small  sums  when  pressure  for  a 
garment  comes  from  any  member  of  the  family,  which  •  cthod 
tends  to  extravagance.  In  some  instances  the  father,  seeing  his 
wife  is  a  poor  manager,  has  taken  over  the  buying  of  the  family 
clothing,  usually  with  disappointing  results,  as  he  does  not  know 
the  needs  nor  has  he  time  or  discernment  to  consider  them  wisely. 

The  use  of  charge  accounts  in  the  stores  makes  it  easier  to  buy 
without  taking  into  consideration  whether  there  will  be  money  to 
pay  or  not.  (See  below,  "Retail  Trade.")  Thus,  many  unneces- 
sary purchases  are  made.  The  department  stores  have  become 
so  attractive  that  the  habit  of  constant  visits  to  get  ideas  on  tin- 
newer  styles  has  grown,  and  it  has  led  to  frequent  purchases  of 
little  knick-knacks  which  waste  money.  The  demand  for  inexpen- 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  103 

sive.  effective  clothing  in  the  latest  style,  yet  at  low  prices,  has 
brought  to  the  department  stores  and  specialty  shops  quantities  of 
unenduring  materials  and  garments  which  last  while  in  the  style. 
They  are  then  put  aside  for  new  ones.  The  habit  of  constant  shop- 
ping and  an  insatiable  desire  for  something  hew  in  clothes  with  no 
check  in  the  knowledge  of  what  there  is  to  spend  nor  thought  for 
the  actual  needs  can  but  lead  to  an  unnecessary  outlay  of  money. 
The  greatest  waste  in  the  household  is  said  to  be  in  the  buying  of 
clothing  and  its  accessories,  for  whims  and  fashions  are  frequently 
determining  factors. 

Suitable,  attractive  clothing  can  and  should  be  provided  for  the 
family.  There  is  no  reason  why  extreme  economy,  simplicity,  good 
line,  and  pleasing  effects  in  dress  should  not  be  attained  by  the 
majority  of  people.  The  aim  should  be  to  buy  wisely  of  the  best 
goods,  to  have  as  few  garments  as  possible,  and  to  go  without  non- 
essentials.  (See  Chapter  XIII,  section  "Clothing  Command- 
ments.") Ideals  of  the  past  as  to  the  necessity  for  richness  and 
variety  of  costumes  should  be  revised,  and  simple,  appropriate, 
enduring  and  artistic  dress  take  their  place.  The  only  safe  course 
is  to  buy  the  cloth  or  garments  which  will  serve  the  longest  and  look 
the  best.  If  there  are  several  young  children  in  a  family,  they  can 
often  be  largely  provided  for  by  made-over  clothing  handed  down 
by  other  members  of  the  family.  This  can  only  be  done  satisfac- 
torily when  good  fabrics  have  been  chosen. 

The  wise  use  of  old  material  is  one  of  the  possible  economies  for 
the  buyer  to  consider  in  her  annual  plans.  It  may  happen  in  a 
family  of  small  means  that  the  clothing  money  may  have  to  be  spent 
chiefly  by  one  member.  This  may  be  the  father,  who  must  be 
well  dressed  for  the  profession  which  gives  him  his  small  income, 
or  the  bulk  of  the  money  may  go  to  the  daughter  who  is  perhaps  in 
outside  employment  or  attending  an  educational  institution.  Each 
family  has  its  own  problems  which  must  be  discovered  and  faced. 

Making  Plans. — The  buyers  first  strong  anchor,  therefore,  is 
to  know  the  amount  she  has  to  spend.  Her  next  step  should  be 
twice  a  year  (early  in  the  fall  for  the  winter  garments  and  late  in 
the  winter  for  the  summer  ones)  to  look  over  all  the  family  cloth- 
ing to  see  how  much  is  available  for  the  approaching  season,  before 
she  apportions  out  a  part  of  the  income  to  each  member  of  the 
family.  If  she  has  been  wise  enough  to  keep  an  inventory  of  the 


104 


CLOTHING 


clothing  on  a  card  catalogue  (one  for  each  member),  she  can  look 
over  these  and  plan  her  campaign  without  having  the  trouble  of 
taking  the  clothing  out  of  the  storage  places.  The  cards  could  be 
arranged  somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  OUTER  GARMENTS  FOR 

Clothing  Inventory 


Kind  of  garment 

Number 

Garments 
in  use 

Condition  gar- 
ments are  in  and 
renewal  necessary 

Cost  to 
repair 

Place  of 
storage: 
(drawer, 
closet,  box 
trunk) 

Outer: 
Coats  
Wraps 

Suits     

Gowns  

Blouses   

Sweaters  

Furs  

Negligees  
Headwear: 
Hats  
Caps  

2.  UNDERGARMENTS,  SHOES,  ETC.  FOR- 
Clothing  Inventory 


Kind  of  garment 

Number 

Garments 
in  use 

Condition  gar- 
ments are  in  and 
renewal  necessary 

Cost  to 
repair 

Place  of 
storage: 
(drawer, 
closet,  box 
trunk) 

Underwear: 
Knitted 

Muslin  
Brassieres  
Camisoles  
Petticoats  
Nightgowns  .  . 
Shoes: 
High.. 

~e>"- 

Low  

Slippers  

Rubbers 

Stockings: 
Cotton 

Silk 

Wool  

INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  105 

After  reviewing  the  situation,  she  is  ready  to  make  her  lists  of 
needs  with  estimated  expenses  for  each,  for  repairing  the  old  and 
for  new  garments.  With  these  in  her  shopping  bag  she  is  fortified 
against  the  temptation  to  buy  attractive  novelties,  or  even 
practical  bargains,  for  she  knows  the  money  is  needed  for  more 
important  purposes. 

Wastes  and  Economies. — The  usual  shopper  gives  little 
thought  to  how  much  she  has  a  right  to  spend  annually  or  for  any 
occasion.  She  needs,  or  thinks  she  needs,  a  new  hat  or  feels  that 
one  of  the  children  must  have  a  new  dress,  or  the  shop  windows  are 
appealing,  or  the  advertisements  with  glowing  statements  attract, 
or  the  stores  show  reduced  ready-to-wear  clothing  or  special  bar- 
gains. Not  having  any  regular  plan  to  indicate  how  many  other 
articles  and  garments  will  be  needed  by  the  family,  she  buys  the  one 
which  attracts,  and  later  finds  every  other  member  of  the  household 
must  suffer.  Or  perhaps  she  may  put  the  purchase  on  the  charge 
account,  even  though  she  fears  it  is  running  high,  trusting  that 
when  the  bill  comes  there  will  be  ready  money  and  willingness  to 
pay  for  it.  Without  a  regular  plan  and  list  it  is  hard  for  the  buyer 
to  realize  that  ready  money  may  belong  to  some  other  urgent  need, 
and  should  not  be  taken  for  anything  else. 

The  wage  earner  of  the  family  often  suspects  that  there  is  un- 
necessary extravagance  in  the  purchasing  branch  of  the  household, 
but  feels  helpless  to  right  it.  He  may  be  an  excellent  financial  con- 
ductor of  his  own  business,  but  is  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed  with  the 
household  expenses.  He  is  often  too  impatient  to  train  the  buyer 
who  sometimes  really  wants  to  know  business-like  methods  of  run- 
ning the  house.  The  trouble,  however,  is  largely  with  the  buyer, 
who  has  not  been  taught  business  methods  and  finds  it  hard  to 
distinguish  between  needs  and  wishes.  She  does  not  know  how  to 
make  a  budget  of  clothing,  nor  how  to  judge  the  values  of  the 
materials  she  buys,  and  has  inherited  and  is  constantly  urged, 
even  by  the  money  maker,  to  extravagant  ideas  of  dress.  The  ma- 
jority of  women  need  a  practical  course  in  simple  accounts  and  in 
textile  buying.  It  is  only  by  the  use  of  systematic  methods  that 
thrift  can  be  developed  and  extravagance  stopped.  A  woman  may 
not  be  naturally  extravagant,  but  if  she  has  no  "plan  of  buying,  no 
estimates  on  the  probable  costs  of  keeping  the  family  satisfactorily 


106  CLOTHING 

clad,  and  no  lists  to  hold  her  back  from  unnecessary  purchases, 
she  feels  preeminently  the  immediate  need  and  buys  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment.  (See  Chapter  I,  "Elimination  of  Wastes.") 

Extravagance  in  dress  is  always  an  offense.  Neat,  adequate,  at- 
tractive dress  has  a  moral  effect  upon  the  wearer.  Over-fashionable, 
luxurious  clothing  for  mere  adornment  influences  disadvantage- 
ously  both  the  mentality  and  the  spirituality  of  the  one  so  dressed. 
The  original  textiles  and  the  labor  or  costs  of  making,  keeping 
garments  in  repair,  and  laundering  are  all  to  be  considered  in  the 
estimates.  Simple  dressing  does  not  necessitate  an  unattractive 
appearance,  and  many  of  the  most  elaborately  dressed  and  wasteful 
spenders  have  the  poorest  results. 

Rapid  changes  of  fashion  have  their  effect  on  the  output  of  the 
textile  factories  as  well  as  on  the  economy  of  the  home.  Garments 
are  cast  aside  before  they  are  worn  out.  As  all  classes  wish 
to  appear  to  dress  with  similar  luxury,  a  call  comes  for  effective 
rather  than  for  enduring  material.  Fashion  also  demands  a  great 
variety  in  clothing;  consequently,  one  person  has  many  gowns, 
wraps,  undergarments,  shoes,  stockings,  neckwear,  and  miscel- 
laneous supplies.  The  factory  in  endeavoring  to  meet  the  re- 
quest for  varied  and  inexpensive  materials,  resorts  to  industrial 
chemistry  for  finishes  which  simulate  those  of  the  best  materials. 
Enduring  material  for  women's  clothing  is  less  in  demand  than 
formerly,  and  it  becomes  hard  to  distinguish  the  best  values  in  the 
mass  of  attractive,  up-to-date,  but  easily  worn  out  stock.  Even  prices 
cease  to  be  indicative  of  worth,  and  some  new  article  or  fancy  fabric 
can  be  sold  at  a  high  price,  though  it  is  but  a  showy,  quickly  pass- 
ing novelty.  An  increasing  amount  of  labor  is  demanded  to  make 
garments  and  keep  them  in  repair,  and  to  launder  elaborate  lingerie. 

The  need  of  the  present  time  is  for  women  to  revolutionize  their 
customs  in  buying  clothing  by  reducing  the  wardrobe  to  a  minimum, 
and  by  buying  the  most  enduring,  staple  fabrics,  moderate  in  style 
and  color,  and  by  willingness  to  eliminate  rapid  changes  of  fashion. 
Transportation  difficulties  and  costs  have  curtailed  the  use  of  the 
big  trunk,  therefore,  fewer  undergarments,  hats,  and  gowns  can  be 
taken.  A  couple  of  bags,  which,  if  necessary,  a  woman  can  carry 
herself,  have  come  to  be  the  criterion  of  variety  in  dress  in  some 
circles.  Professional  women,  in  the  past,  were  expected  to  be 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  107 

elaborately  dressed  when  they  spoke  to  large  audiences,  but  now  the 
business  suit  is  en  regie  for  them  as  it  is  for  men.  Over-luxury  in 
too  many  changes  of  lingerie  waists,  underwear,  and  nightgowns 
per  week,  as  well  as  too  much  lacy  trimming,  were  characteristic  of 
the  past  and  should  not  become  common  again.  Women  who  never 
before  laundered  their  own  clothing  have  had  to  do  so,  and  have 
thus,  on  account  of  the  labor  shortage,  come  to  realize  the  amount 
of  time  that  they  have  heretofore  demanded  of  others  in  washing, 
ironing,  and  putting  in  order  delicate,  lace-trimmed  garments. 
The  vast  number  of  styles  to  choose  from  is  curtailed.  Now  is  the 
time  for  women  to  unite  in  a  campaign  for  a  satisfactory  basis  of 
clothing  manufacture  and  purchase.  (See  Chapter  XIII,  section 
"  Sensible  Standards  of  Dress.")  . 

Every  citizen  should  consider  what  are  the  fewest  garments 
necessary  for  appearing  neatly  and  appropriately  clothed.  In  the 
past,  it  was  not  infrequent  for  a  waist  or  coat  to  be  discarded  as  the 
skirt  was  worn  out.  But  now  cloth  should  be  selected  for  a  suit  of 
a  weave  and  color  that  will  harmonize  with  other  clothing,  and 
thus,  if  one  part  wears  out  before  the  other,  the  remaining  piece  can 
still  be  used.  Thoughtful  men  shoppers  are  buying  two  pairs  of 
trousers  with  one  coat,  and  women,  two  skirts  with  one  coat.  Good 
quality  blue,  black,  or  dark  brown  serges,  gabardines,  tricotines, 
Oxfords,  tweeds,  and  other  enduring  cloths  can  be  of  service  until 
partly  worn  out  and  the  best  part  can  then  be  made  over  for  the 
younger  members  of  the  family,  or  for  use  in  social  relief  work. 
Rapid  changes  of  fashion  are  beginning  to  be  resented  by  the  in- 
telligent buyer  and  extreme  styles  in  clothing  are  being  discouraged. 
"  One  of  the  most  serious  wastes  is  labor  waste/'  Ladies'  maids 
and  innumerable  servants  to  take  care  of  unnecessary  belongings; 
garment  makers  to  attend  to  constant  fashion  changes ;  fine  laundry 
hands  or  workers  on  flimsy  neckwear  and  undergarments  should  be 
released  for  more  important  work. 

Bargain  counters  seem  at  present  to  be  essential  to  dispose  of 
the  vast  amount  of  materials  and  commodities  left  over  which  could 
not  otherwise  be  sold.  The  sales  consist  largely  of  garments,  shoes, 
and  neckwear  which  have  been  taken  home  on  approval  and  re- 
turned in  bad  condition  or  too  late  for  the  height  of  sale,  of  novelty 
goods  of  numerous  kinds  which  were  sold  at  first  at  a  high  profit 


108  CLOTHING 

and  must  be  closed  out  at  cut  rates,  of  short  stocks,  of  styles 
that  have  not  taken  or  have  gone  by,  of  merchandise  bought  in 
quantities  at  reduced  prices  on  account  of  failure  or  "  fire/'  of 
out-of-season  goods,  and  of  seconds  or  merchandise  with  some  flaw. 
In  this  vast  amount  of  material  much  is  excellent,  but  few  shoppers 
know  how  to  choose,  and  many  buy  more  material  than  needed  in 
order  to  get  the  low  price  and  thus  gain  nothing,  for  they  have 
material  left  over.  Bargain-counter  offerings  tempt  to  too  hasty 
decisions,  unless  the  buyer  is  trained.  It  seldom  is  economy  to  buy 
something,  thinking  it  may  in  time  be  needed.  The  "  bargain  base- 
ments "  of  the  best  kind,  however,  offer  opportunities  for  the  intelli- 
gent shopper  to  purchase  at  out-of-season  prices.  Such  goods  bought 
at  auction  can  be  sold  cheaper  than  the  regular  stock ;  the  overhead 
store  expenses  are  less;  goods  are  carried  home  in  place  of  being 
delivered ;  and  the  elaboration  of  store  display  is  lessened.  For  the 
buyer  who  plans  carefully  and  is  a  judge  of  values,  the  out-of- 
season  sale  offers  economic  possibilities. 

The  buyer  must  cling  to  thrift  ideals,  and  not  buy  if  there  is 
not  specific  necessity,  but  if  she  needs  and  has  the  money  she  must 
not  let  the  family  supply  of  required  articles  and  garments  run 
down  until  they  must  be  replaced  in  quantities  at  unnecessary  ex- 
pense to  the  budget.  No  good  business  man  allows  his  stock  to 
run  out,  but  keeps  careful  account  of  it,  and  regularly  replaces  it 
that  an  even  level  of  supply  may  be  always  on  hand.  Thus,  must 
the  household  buyer  plan.  She  should  know  which  garments  must 
be  replaced  regularly,  and  allow  for  them  in  the  clothing  budget. 
Her  duty  now  more  than  ever  before  is  to  see  that  the  strongest  and 
most  easily  taken  care  of  articles  are  purchased,  that  the  necessary 
replacing  may  come  at  longer  intervals.  The  higher  class  of  ad- 
vertising men  are  urging  honest  advertising  that  may  help  the 
public,  and  the  intelligent  consumer  can  assist  this  movement  by 
asking  for  absolute  truth  in  statements,  by  showing  appreciation 
when  she  finds  it,  and,  when  goods  have  been  misrepresented,  by 
returning  them  to  the  store  with  her  just  complaint. 

Learning  to  Shop. — The  woman  consumer  of  America  is  now 
in  process  of  development.  The  way  she  meets  her  duty  to.  the 
country  at  present — using  business  methods  in  the  conduct  of  the 
home ;  planning  the  family  budget,  and  exercising  thought  and  thrift 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  109 

in  all  her  purchases ;  choosing  merchandise  from  actual  knowledge 
of  its  value  and  use;  demanding  honest  statements  concerning 
goods ;  eliminating  wastes  in  rapidly  changing  fashions,  in  methods 
of  shopping  (see  below,  section  "Retail  Trade")  and  in  the  lack 
of  care  of  clothing — all  these  things  will  determine  her  future  influ- 
ence on  the  huge  problems  of  industry  confronting  the  country.  As 
yet,  the  majority  of  women  know  little  of  methods  of  manufacture 
as  related  to  endurance  of  fabrics,  the  properties  of  textiles  as  related 
to  specific  service,  how  much  material  to  buy  for  various  kinds  of 
clothing,  how  to  take  care  of  it,  and  the  relation  of  clothing  to 
health.  Experience  is  a  good  teacher,  but  if  there  is  much  technical 
knowledge  needed,  it  is  a  slow  one.  The  business  manager  of  a 
family  wardrobe  in  the  majority  of  families  cannot  afford  to  make 
mistakes.  She  needs  some  training  to  enable  her  to  make  usable 
clothing  budgets,  estimate  expenses,  and  keep  accounts.  She  should 
know  the  names  of  staple  materials  in  the  four  leading  textiles, 
how  they  should  look  and  feel,  and  their  values,  approximate 
widths  and  prices,  when  in  the  best  condition,  and  firms  producing 
the  most  reliable  goods.  Each  textile  has  its  own  characteristic 
properties  which  enable  it  best  to  serve  certain  purposes.  The 
shopper  should  know  which  materials  will  wear,  hold  their  dye, 
and  launder  to  the  highest  advantage,  or  she  is  likely  to  exchange 
her  money  for  something  which  has  not  been  worth  the  cash  she 
has  spent  upon  it.  Poor  materials  with  effective  finishes,  but  little 
endurance,  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  for  rapidly  changing  fashions 
and  lack  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  consumer  have  called 
them  forth.  Materials  may  fade,  tear,  ravel,  pull  out  of  shape,  be- 
come rough,  spot,  shrink,  crease  or  fail  to  launder  well.  The  buyer 
must  know  when  these  defects  are  apt  to  occur  and  how  .to  renovate 
and  lengthen  the  life  of  clothing.  She  should  be  able  to  make  many 
simple  home  tests  of  material  in  order  to  judge  the  strength  or 
weakness  of  doubtful  goods  before  she  buys  them.  (See  below, 
section  "  Tests/')  She  should  have  definite  standards  for  sat- 
isfactory clothing.  (See  Chapter  XIII,  sections  "Clothing  Com- 
mandments" and  "Sensible  Standards.")  The  position  of  the 
family  buyer  is  a  very  responsible  one,  especially  if  she  has  charge 
of  the  wardrobe  of  a  family  of  small  means,  for  the  dollar  cannot 
buy  as  much  as  in  the  days  before  the  war. 


110  CLOTHING 

The  best  way  to  obtain  a  foundation  for  wise  buying  is  to  take 
a  course  of  instruction  leading  to  practical  knowledge  in  selecting 
clothing  and  textiles.  If  a  full  course  is  impossible,  a  short  one 
will  at  least  give  a  good  basis  for  learning  by  experience,  and  if  each 
buyer  keeps  a  card  catalogue  showing  standard  cloths,  tests,  and  in- 
formation gained  by  experiment,  she  will  soon  find  herself  growing 
in  wisdom  and  economy. 

Retail  Trade. — Intelligent  buying  includes  not  only  keeping 
expenditures  within  the  income  and  careful  planning  before  pur- 
chasing, but  also  shopping  with  due  regard  to  business  standards. 
The  department  stores  and  specialty  shops  have  given  the  consumer 
many  privileges  which  have  facilitated  trade  and  added  to  the  com- 
fort of  buying,  but  brought  no  money  in  return.  The  costs  attend- 
ing these  privileges  are  large  and  are  borne  by  the  store  and  also  by 
the  customer  in  the  added  price  of  merchandise.  Unfortunately, 
the  thoughtless  shopper  has  misused  her  advantages,  and  not  realiz- 
ing the  expenses  attending  these  accommodations,  has  brought 
heavy  burdens  to  the  store  and  higher  prices  of  goods  to  herself. 

The  main  wastes  in  retail  stores  may  be  cited  as  follows:  The 
wrong  use  of  the  charge  account  and  the  slow  payment  of  bills, 
taking  out  an  undue  amount  of  goods  on  approval,  delay  in  return- 
ing approval  goods  not  desired  or  to  be  changed,  the  condition  in 
which  the  goods  are  returned — soiled,  crumpled,  and  even  having 
been  worn,  the  many  free  deliveries  a  day,  the  special  and  C.  0.  D. 
deliveries,  and  the  returning  of  goods  after  Christmas  to  obtain 
credit  for  them. 

Before  the  war  began  the  retail  trade  realized  that  these  privi- 
leges had  gone  too  far  and  that  if  some  relief  were  not  forthcoming 
many  firms  must  fail.  The  condition  was  felt  over  the  entire  coun- 
try, but  was  more  serious  in  the  middle  and  northwestern  states. 
Various  methods  of  appealing  to  the  public  were  tried,  but  few 
consumers  paid  much  attention  to  them,  and  many  had  become 
chronic  returners  of  goods  and  resented  interference.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  war  brought  a  still  more  serious  condition,  for  the  need 
of  extreme  thrift  on  the  part  of  the  nation  was  felt  by  the  retail 
trade  in  the  lessened  purchases  by  the  public.  The  Commercial 
Section  of  the  War  Industries  Board  saw  the  situation  and  took 
measures  for  eliminating  these  wastes.  Regulations  were  made 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  111 

after  consultation  with  leading  merchants  from  all  over  the  coun- 
try. The  war  being  over  there  is  naturally  a  relaxing  of  these 
admirable  decrees,  but  the  conditions  remain  serious.  These  sug- 
gestions were  considered  and  acted  upon  as  the  merchants  felt 
would  best  suit  their  communities.  It  is  for  the  wise  consumer  to 
accept  and  personally  live  up  to  the  spirit  of  the  recommendations, 
even  if  some  of  the  stores  are  not  yet  demanding  full  compliance, 
for  the  public  is  largely  responsible  for  the  conditions.  The  higher 
prices  of  commodities  made  necessary  are  heavy  on  those  who  have 
small  incomes  and  unjust  to  those  who  do  not  use  the  privileges. 
Some  of  the  suggested  reforms  have  been : 

One  to  three  days'  limit  for  returning  goods  on  approvel. 

Goods  to  be  taken  back  only  when  in  perfect  condition.  Perishable  goods 
cannot  be  sent  on  approval.  Goods  that  have  been  altered  and  delivered 
cannot  be  returned  unless  defective.  Goods  that  may  become  unsanitary 
cannot  go  out  on  approval. 

Accounts  should  be  paid  monthly. 

The  free  deliveries  should  be  reduced,  if  possible,  to  one  a  day  for 
all  routes. 

Special  delivery  should  be  stopped  or  greatly  restricted. 

A  deposit  of  money  should  be  required  for  all  C.  O.  D.  or  "will-call" 
purchases. 

Still  other  reforms  are  being  made  or  suggested  as  follows : 

Stopping  the  free  alteration  of  suits,  coats,  and  dresses. 

Shopping1  early  before  the  rush  hours  and  thus  better  utilizing 
the  salesforce. 

Xot  taking  unnecessarily  the  time  of  salespeople  in  looking  over  goods. 

Reducing  the  wrapping  of  merchandise  to  save  paper  and  labor. 

Reducing  the  number  of  fancy  boxes  and  varieties  of  form  and  decora- 
tion in  them. 

Eliminating  unnecessary  numbers  and  styles  of  merchandise  in  any  one 
kind  and  the  innumerable  methods  of  displaying  them. 

Eliminating  the  number  of  illustrated  catalogues  and  advertisements. 

Increase  of  self-service  methods  of  sales. 

Charging  for  the  delivery  of  goods  and  for  the  use  of  the  charge  account. 

Retail  stores  all  over  the  country  are  still  considering  and  acting 
upon  these  reforms,  as  they  gain  the  cooperation  of  their  clientele. 
Such  slogans  as  "  shop  early/'  "  carry  your  bundles,"  "  take  it  home 
and  keep  it  there,"  have  become  familiar  to  the  public  and  should 
be  observed  by  a  good  shopper.  The  stores  are  endeavoring  to  aid 
the  customers  by  training  the  sales  force  to  know  the  merchandise 
and  to  give  intelligent  advice.  They  do  not  wish  the  sales  people  to 


112  CLOTHING 

urge  the  purchaser  to  take  goods  home  on  approval  or  to  buy  if  she 
is  not  satisfied.  There  is  no  excuse  for  the  shopper,  however,  even 
if  the  sales  person  is  importunate,  for  the  duty  of  the  former  is 
clearly  to  refuse  to  take  goods  on  approval  if  she  does  not  definitely 
expect  to  purchase  the  same;  the  sales  person  is  naturally  anxious 
to  sell  as  much  as  possible  that  her  rating  with  the  firm  may 
be  satisfactory. 

A  well-known  house  in  a  leading  city  endeavored  to  improve  the 
retail  situation  by  charging  the  bare  cost  of  maintenance  for  the 
use  of  the  charge  account  and  the  delivery.  A  fairer  arrangement 
was  thus  made,  for  those  who  desired  special  privileges  paid  for 
them.  A  large  number  of  customers*  who  do  not  use  the  charge 
account  and  who  carry  home  their  packages,  have  for  some  time 
objected  to  paying  for  services  they  were  not  using  in  added  cost 
of  merchandise.  They  saw  that  this  arrangement  was  right  and 
rejoiced  that  at  least  one  firm  tried  to  lower  prices  to  those  who  did 
not  use  privileges.  Some  stores,  desiring  to  improve  their  business 
and  hold  their  clientele,  are  still  giving  the  customer  every  advan- 
tage, even  when  she  is  in  the  wrong,  but  more  thoughtful  women  do 
not  wish  to  be  given  privileges  at  the  expense  of  other  women,  nor 
to  be  allowed  favors  they  do  not  deserve.  The  reduction  of  costs  on 
accommodations  will  lower  the  price  of  goods  in  the  store,  which 
is  good  for  business  as  well  as  for  the  customer.  It  is  as  im- 
portant for  women  to  understand  their  business  as  spenders  of 
money  as  for  men  to  know  their  business  as  producers  of  goods. 

The  textile  industries  and  the  retail  trade  rely  on  women  as 
their  chief  support.  The  class  of  goods  and  commodities  made  or 
sold  is  largely  the  result  of  the  demand  or  of  the  willingness  to  buy 
of  the  majority  of  consumers.  The  factories  manufacture  those 
goods  which  they  have  reason  to  think  they  can  sell.  They  obtain 
their  ideas  largely  from  the  demand  of  the  retail-store  buyers,  who 
are  in  direct  contact  with  the  consumers.  If  women  will  endeavor  to 
understand  the  situation  in  industry  at  the  present  time  and  act 
with  intelligence  and  sympathy  they  will  greatly  help  business.  A 
more  efficient  consumer  is  in  process  of  development  as  a  result  of 
home  economics  teaching  in  colleges,  technical  institutes,  and  schools, 
of  the  work  in  textile  training  in  the  extension  field,  and  also 
of  the  efforts  of  the  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs.  This  move- 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  1 13 

ment  will  be  hampered  and  retarded  unless  the  majority  of  women 
show  themselves  ready  to  study  their  relation  to  our  industries  and 
distributing  centers,  and  then  facilitate  suggested  reforms.  (See 
"  The  New  Consumer,"  page  VIII.) 

In  addition,  the  shopper  should  be  mindful  of  the  effect  of  her 
shopping  upon  the  sales  force.  Few  realize  the  relation  there  is  be- 
tween the  many  goods  they  return  on  approval  and  the  wages  of  the 
sales  girl.  The  amount  she  receives  is  based  largely  on  the  actual 
sales  made.  She  frequently  has  a  regular  wage  and  an  additional 
one  for  sales  beyond  a  definite  sum.  If  the  goods  do  not  stay  sold, 
even  if  she  has  worked  hard,  she  has  nothing  to  her  credit.  An 
entire  hard  week  of  work  m'ay  result  only  in  discouragement  for 
her.  The  additional  sales  from  which  she  hoped  for  a  bonus,  per- 
haps to  make  those  at  home  more  comfortable,  have  proved  but  a 
delusion,  for  the  articles  have  been  returned.  A  thoughtless  cus- 
tomer will  try  on  suits  or  hats  for  an  hour  or  more  with  little  idea 
of  purchasing,  or  will  look  over  stock  at  a  counter  taking  the 
precious  time  of  the  sales  person.  Another  shopper  may  wish  only 
to  be  directed  as  to  the  possibility  of  getting  what  she  needs  at  that 
counter,  yet  the  hesitating  purchaser  will  greatly  object  to  the 
sales  girl  answering  the  questions.  Customers  are  frequently  irrit- 
able and  exacting  without  sufficient  cause.  The  sales  girls  try  to  be 
attentive,  amiable,  and  patient,  but  are  often  sorely  tried.  A  smile 
and  consideration  will  often  change  the  aspect  of  a  whole  day 
for  them. 

Home  Tests  of  Fabrics. 

What  was  the  matter  with  Ma/ry's  last  dressf1 

Did  it  fade? 

Did  it  shrink  badly? 

Did  it  go  to  pieces  when  rubbed  on  the  washing  board? 

Did  it  look  like  linen  at  first,  smooth  and  glossy,  and  then  after  washing 
look  coarse  and  open  and  dull? 

Did  it  spot  when  Mary  was  caught  in  the  rain  ? 

Was  it  more  cotton  than  wool,  even  though  the  salesman  assured  you 
it  was  "  all  wool  "  ? 

Do  you  really  want  to  know  about  all  these  things  before  buying  Mary's 
next  dress,  or  coat,  or  underwear? 

If  so,  don't  go  by  looks  alone.    Get  a  sample  of  the  material  and  test  it! 

1  From  pamphlet  prepared  by  Anita  M.  Earl,  issued  by  Clothing  Com 
mittee  of  Child  Welfare  Exhibit,  New  York,  1911. 


114  CLOTHING 

When  a  thoughtful  consumer  is  about  to  buy  cloth  or  a  ready-to- 
wear  gown,  she  has  some  such  questions  as  the  above  in  the  back- 
ground of  her  mind.  To  judge  the  worth  of  a  fabric  by  its 
appearance  requires  training  and  experience.  The  old-time  buyer 
relied  on  the  look  and  feel  of  the  cloth,  but  the  wonders  of  indus- 
trial chemistry  as  applied  to  textiles  were  not  then  in  existence.  At 
present,  the  manner  of  finishing  can  give  a  good  appearance  and 
feel  even  to  inferior  fabrics,  but  it  cannot  make  such  material  wear 
well.  The  careful  modern  buyer  when  uncertain  of  the  value  of  a 
piece  of  cloth  takes  a  sample  home  and  tests  it.  There  are  chemical 
and  mechanical  tests  that  will  show  the  real  state  of  the  fabric. 
Such  tests  are  used  by  the  Government  for  all  cloth  purchased  by  it 
for  federal  purposes,  for  such  material  must  come  up  to  the  speci- 
fications or  it  is  turned  back  on  the  manufacturer.  Testing  stations 
for  Government  cloth  are  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
one  being  on  Governor's  Island  in  New  York  Harbor.  The  labora- 
tories at  such  stations  are  filled  with  elaborate  testing  apparatus. 
The  home  buyer  cannot  have  such  laboratories  to  rely  upon,  but  can 
discover  much  from  simple  home  methods.  (See  Chapter  IV,  sec- 
tion "  How  to  Tell  Textile  Materials/') 

If  a  wool  cloth  is  to  be  given  hard  wear  out-of-doors,  it  should 
be  enduring,  should  keep  its  shape,  should  be  fast  to  sunlight,  and 
should  not  spot  with  rain  or  mud.  Cottons  must  be  well  woven, 
must  launder  and  hold  their  color;  silks,  when  colored,  should  be  as 
near  pure-dye  as  possible;  and  linen  should  be  strong. 

Cotton  and  linen  (vegetable  fibers)  are  sometimes  mistaken  for 

each  other,  but  the  fiber  of  the  latter  is  longer  and  has  a  greater 

shine  upon  it  and  the  yarn  has  little  inequalities  in  it.    Cotton  fiber 

is  short,  the  yarn  is  dull  and  soft  looking,  and  evenly  spun,  as  a 

rule,  unless  especially  prepared  to  look  like  linen.     Linen  in  the 

^4iand  feels  cool  and  leathery  and  when  crushed  has  more  wrinkles 

remaining  in  it  than  cotton,  unless  the  latter  is  full  of  dressing. 

V      Before  testing  either  linen  or  cotton  the  starches  and  stiffen  ings 

should  be  boiled  out.    When  linen  yarn  is  broken,  the  end  is  'nmn 

compact  than  cotton,  which  spreads  out  in  a  brush-like  manner. 

When  tearing  linen  the  sound  is  shrill,  whereas  in  tearing  a  fabric 

i  of  equal  weight  in  cotton  the  sound  will  be  duller.    Ink  dropped  on 

I  unsized  linen  and  unsized  cotton  will  spread  differently;  on  the 


^ 

INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  115 

former  the  spot  passes  quickly  into  the  surrounding  fibers,  but  with 
cotton  is  apt  to  lie  on  top  of  the  fabric.  Glycerine  dropped  on  un- 
sized linen  makes  it  translucent,  but  it  has  not  this  effect  on  cotton. 
If  the  yarn  of  both  materials  is  unravelled  and  the  fibers  pulled 
apart,  the  cotton  will  be  short  and  curly  and  the  linen  (if  made  of 
the  line)  will  be  long,  straight,  and  glossy,  but  if  made  of  tow,  the 
differences  are  less  apparent.  A  weaver's  glass,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased for  a  small  sum,  is  useful  in  noting  these  conditions.  The 
microscope  shows  variations  in  the  appearance  of  linen  and  cotton, 
and  color  and  chemical  tests  are  used  in  testing  laboratories.  Cot- 
ton and  linen  do  not  hold  ordinary  dyes  well.  Colored  cotton 
hosiery,  underwear,  or  linings  may  quickly  lose  their  color  and  be 
dangerous  for  health,  and  black  stockings  have  poisoned  some  skins. 
By  rubbing  a  colored  fabric  smartly  against  the  hand  or  against  a 
white  cloth,  the  loss  of  color  can  sometimes  be  detected. 

A  fabric  can  be  tested  for  color  changes  by  taking  a  sample  two 
or  three  inches  long,  covering  one  part  with  a  card  and  exposing 
the  remainder  to  the  weather  for  a  week  or  so  and  noting  the 
result.  Some  fabrics  fade  in  the  laundry,  and  it  is  well  to  test  a 
doubtful  sample  by  washing  it.  Or,  a  textile  may  be  fast  to  washing 
but  not  to  sunshine,  and  if  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  for  a  time 
will  show  it.  Many  materials  spot  in  the  rain  and  can  be  tested 
by  throwing  drops  of  water  on  them  in  which  a  little  lime  has  been 
dissolved.  Wools  are  usually  fast  to  dye  but  when  combined  with 
vegetable  fibers  are  more  apt  to  lose  color.  The  fastness  of  dye 
depends  not  only  on  the  class  of  dye  but  on  the  way  the  work  is  done. 

Cotton  can  be  made  to  look  and  feel  like  wool  and  is  frequently 
combined  with  it  to  reduce  the  price  of  the  cloth.  Animal  fibers 
(wool  and  silk)  burn  slowly  and  jerkily  with  a  smell  of  burning 
feathers,  the  fire  goes  out  quickly,  and  a  rolled  up  ball  of  gummy 
ash  is  left.  Vegetable  fibers  burn  easily  from  their  cellulose  nature. 
Cotton  has  an  acrid  odor  when  burning  and  a  soft  easily  disinte- 
grated ash  is  left.  It  has  a  special  tendency  to  combustion  on  ac- 
count of  the  oil  in  it.  Cotton  linters,  when  treated  with  nitric  acid, 
become  gun  cotton.  This  treatment  makes  cotton  feel  like  wool. 
The  quick  burning  of  cotton  makes  a  special  risk  to  be  guarded 
against.  A  doth  with  a  soft  napped  surface,  as  in  flannelette,  is 
dangerous  if  a  spark  from  a  fire  or  match  touches  it  for  it  is  imme- 


116  CLOTHING 

diately  in  flames.  Many  serious  fires  have  occurred  from  careless- 
ness with  cotton  drapery,  blankets  or  clothing.  As  wool  does  not 
burn  easily,  an  all-wool  blanket  can  be  used  to  extinguish  such  a 
fire  in  its  beginning.  The  differences  in  the  way  animal  and  vege- 
table fabrics  burn  make  a  good  test  of  a  material  of  doubtful  con- 
tent. In  a  mixture  of  the  two  the  vegetable  fibers  will  still  burn 
when  the  animal  fibers  are  extinguished.  Cotton  continues  to  glow 
when  the  flame  is  out,  often  until  the  entire  mass  is  consumed, 
if  it  is  all  cotton. 

A  simple  home  test  for  the  presence  of  cotton  in  wool  is  to 
dissolve  one  or  two  teaspoonfuls  of  household  lye  (caustic  potash)  in 
a  pint  of  water  and  boil  the  sample  in  it  for  five  to  ten  min- 
utes, noting  the  result.  If  all-wool  the  sample  will  be  dissolved; 
if  mixed  with  cotton,  the  latter  will  remain.  By  washing  the 
residue  to  rid  it  of  the  wool  which  has  become  gummy,  the  cotton 
is  left,  and  if  it  has  been  inserted  at  regular  intervals  in  the  warp 
and  woof,  it  will  be  in  the  form  of  a  coarse  mesh.  Such  tests  as 
this  must  be  made  carefully,  as  in  too  weak  a  solution,  boiled  too 
short  a  time,  the  wool  may  not  be  dissolved.  About  5  per  cent,  of 
the  cotton  is  lost  in  a  satisfactory  test. 

In  a  microscope  the  difference  between  cotton  and  wool  fibers 
is  very  clear,  and  even  the  naked  eye  can  note  the  crimpiness  and 
wiriness  of  the  wool  as  against  the  fuzziness  of  the  cotton. 

Pure  silk,  when  burning,  gives  off  an  odor  similar  to  wool,  but 
less  decided.  It  burns  slowly  and  less  continuously  than  the  vege- 
table fibers  and  soon  goes  out.  It  leaves  an  ash  in  a  small  ball. 
When  combined  with  mercerized  cotton  the  latter  burns  like  cotton 
and  can  be  detected.  Weighted  silk  will  burn,  and  the  weighting 
keeps  more  or  less  the  form  of  the  textile  while  the  pure  silk  is 
consumed.  The  form  of  the  ash  soon  breaks,  but  lasts  long  enough 
to  indicate  the  presence  of  weighting.  Artificial  silk  being  cellulose 
burns  readily  and  in  a  manner  different  from  pure  silk.  Silk  fiber 
under  the  microscope  is  long,  shiny,  and  smooth.  Wool  or  silk 
take  dye  more  readily  than  cotton  or  linen,  and  in  the  combination 
of  animal  and  vegetable  fibers,  there  are  difficulties  in  retaining  an 
even  color  after  exposure  to  the  air  and  light.  (See  Chapter  XII, 
section  "  Dyeing  and  Tinting.") 

The  way  cloth  is  woven  is  a  factor  in  its  endurance.     If  the 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  117 

yarn  is  poor  and  the  weaving  irregular  or  sleazy,  or  long 
threads  float  on  the  surface,  the  fabric  will  not  wear  well  if  sub- 
jected to  much  strain.  By  holding  the  cloth  to  the  light  or  by 
grasping  a  piece  of  it  with  the  fingers  about  an  inch  apart  and  pull- 
ing steadily,  weakness  is  often  shown.  Staple  cloths,  such  as  nain- 
sook or  wool  serge,  have  a  regular  number  of  threads  per  inch  for 
certain  qualities.  This  can  be  determined  by  a  weaver's  glass.  Push- 
ing the  nail  against  the  cloth  to  see  if  the  weave  is  strong  will  at 
times  show  unexpected  looseness  and  weakness.  Cloth  will  be  more 
enduring  if  the  yarn  both  ways  is  about  even  in  strength ;  the  length- 
wise threads  (warp)  are  usually  somewhat  stronger  than  the  filling 
(woof).  If  the  yarn  is  unravelled  and  broken,  it  will  sometimes 
show  weakness,  which  does  not  promise  well  for  the  endurance  of  the 
fabric.  Material  that  has  a  heavy  cord  at  intervals  alternated  with 
fine  yarn,  such  as  in  dimities  and  some  ginghams,  does  not  always 
wear  well.  Dimity  which  has  cords  in  both  warp  and  woof  near 
each  other  at  regular  intervals  will  wear  better  than  with  the  cord 
only  one  way.  The  heavy  cord  (often  of  cotton)  in  a  wool  or  silk 
poplin  will  sometimes  break  down  the  finer  warp  threads,  and  such 
material  should  be  tested  before  buying  by  pushing  the  warp  threads 
away  from  the  cord  and  noting  the  strength  and  the  closeness  of  the 
yarn  in  the  weave. 

Perspiration  will  discolor  some  fabrics.  A  test  for  it  is  lactic 
acid,  or  a  piece  of  the  cloth  can  be  put  against  the  skin  and 
worn  for  a  while  to  see  if  the  color  changes.  Government  cloth  is 
sometimes  tested  by  placing  it  under  the  saddle  next  to  the  skin  of 
the  horse. 

If  it  is  feared  that  a  cloth  may  become  shiny,  it  is  well  to  rub 
it  smartly  with  a  similar  piece  of  cloth  and  note  the  result.  Diago- 
nal worsted  suitings,  dressed  or  undressed,  and  closely  woven  serges 
are  apt  to  become  shiny  where  there  is  friction.  Long,  lustrous  fibers 
become  shiny  sooner  than  shorter  duller  ones.  Some  diagonal  suit- 
ings have  a  soft  finish  partly  obliterating  the  weave.  This  is  apt 
to  wear  off  when  friction  occurs,  unless  the  pile  is  thick  and  strong. 
In  general,  closely  twisted  yarns  wear  better  than  loosely  twisted 
ones,  crepe  de  Chine,  for  instance,  is  more  enduring  than  taffeta, 
and  lisle  thread  than  the  softer  cottons.  Xapped  goods  which  are 
soft  and  thin  are  liable  to  wear  off.  Surface  finishes  soon  pass 


•  118  CLOTHING 

away  and  the  consumer  should  see  whether  the  dressing  is  easily 
removed.  Starch  and  clay  can  often  be  loosened  with  the  nail  or 
tasted  with  the  tongue;  the  gloss  from  extreme  pressure  can  be 
washed  off  and  the  glue  and  starch  dressings  can  be  boiled  out, 
often  leaving  a  coarse,  weak  structure.  Fine  clippings  from  the 
gigging  machine  (flocks)  may  be  felted  into  a  cloth  to  make  it 
close  in  weaving,  and  these  can  be  detected  by  a  good  brushing  on 
the  back  with  a  stiff  brush,  for  they  fall  out  like  dust.  ( See  Chap- 
ter IV,  sections  "Tests  for  Silk"  and  "How  to  Tell  Textile 
Materials/') 

The  consumer  wishing  to  learn  how  to  judge  material  should 
begin  by  studying  the  feel,  look,  weave,  and  fastness  of  dye  of  rep- 
resentative fabrics  in  cotton,  linen,  wool,  and  silk.  She  should  keep 
a  card  catalogue  and  place  a  sample  of  cloth  on  cards,  making  notes 
of  facts  she  has  discovered.  (See  below  for  plan  of  card.)  These 
records  will  be  of  use  to  her  in  future  judgments. 

Name  of  Textile  as  wool,  cotton,  etc. 

Sample  Name  of  fabric 

of  Width      Cost 

Cloth  Fiber  content 

Weave 
Place   of   purchase 

date 

Manufacturer 
Condition 
Wearing 
Tests 
Remarks 

Labels  and  Legislation. — The  Congress  of  the  United  States 
has  brought  forward  many  bills  for  increasing  textile  honesty.  Sev- 
eral labelling  bills  have  appeared,  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that 
they  are  not  workable,  for  they  require  too  much  complex  data  from 
the  manufacturer  and  contain  within  thent  the  possibility  of  fraud. 
Great  Britain  has  for  thirty  years  had  in  operation  an  act  which 
punishes  for  misrepresentation  in  merchandise;  this  is  called  the 
"  Merchandise  Marks  Act."  It  has  worked  successfully  and  rH'<>rt> 
are  being  made  to  have  such  a  bill  introduced  into  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States.  Consumers,  honest  men -hauls,  and  manufac- 
turers are  suffering  from  numerous  missttitmnMits  and  fraudulent 


INTELLIGENT  SHOPPING  119 

brands  on  commodities,  and  have  heretofore  had  no  adequate  pro- 
tection. Under  this  bill  misbranding  becomes  a  crime  punishable 
by  fine,  imprisonment  or  both.  Misstatements  in  textiles  and 
leather  have  been  the  cause  of  much  wasteful  buying,  and  intelli- 
gent women  object  to  being  thus  misled.  The  consumer  can  im- 
prove shopping  conditions  by  giving  this  bill,  and  other  bills 
which  can  help  her,  favorable  consideration.  (See  Chapter 
XII,  section  "  Dyeing  and  Tinting  "  for  mention  of  legislation  on 
supporting  an  American  dye  industry.) 

A  movement  is  on  foot  also  to  have  a  national  label  on  goods. 
The  idea  is  being  endorsed  by  large  mercantile  associations.  It 
will  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  firm  names  or  labels  on  which 
the  consumer  has  relied  for  obtaining  dependable  goods,  for  many 
of  them  have  become  certificates  of  worth.  As  a  nation,  however, 
we  have  not  always  appreciated  our  own  advance  in  textile  manu- 
facture. •  The  consumer,  in  many  commodities,  asks  for  imported 
goods,  thinking  they  are  more  attractive,  more  enduring,  and  of 
more  permanent  dye.  Thus,  our  own  manufacturers  have  been 
forced  frequently  to  make  the  medium  goods  or  those  that  will  sell 
at  lower  prices.  Many  factories  making  the  best  fabrics  have  had 
to  use  a  foreign  label  to  sell  their  output  in  the  United  States.  Our 
goods  have  been  bought  in  foreign  countries,  their  label  affixed  to 
them,  and  they  have  been  sold  to  us  as  foreign  goods.  Law  is  con- 
trolling this  of  late.  The  war  has  brought  us  to  new  views  of  the 
ability  of  our  own  country  to  compete  with  the  industrial  world. 
Every  consumer  should  take  pride  in  the  plan  for  a  national  label 
and  further  the  spirit  of  fhe  movement  by  buying  goods  made  in  the 
United  States  in  preference  to  those  of  other  countries,  even 
though  our  prices  at  times  are  in  excess  of  the  foreign  ones.  Guar- 
antees for  the  trustworthiness  of  fabrics  have  been  given  sometimes 
with  too  little  basis  in  fact,  but  the  consumer  has  it  in  his  power  to 
demand  that  such  assurances  shall  be  absolutely  dependable. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Taking  the  shopping  situation  as  a  whole,  what  are  the  principal  eco- 

nomic wastes? 

2.  What  factors  enter  into  intelligent  shopping? 

3.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  consumer  in  lessening  some  of  the  costs  in  the 

department  store? 


120  CLOTHING 

4.  Give  tests  of  textiles  which  will  aid  the  consumer  in  judgments  of  the 

values  of  fabrics. 

5.  What  does  the  consumer  need  to  know  to  make  her  equal  to  her  responsi- 

bilities as  the  spender  of  money? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Go  to  a  store,  and  with  ideals  of  good  and  worthy  merchandise  in  mind, 

see  how  many  things  may  be  eliminated. 

2.  What  questions  do  you  ask  a  salesperson  that  you  should  be  able  to 

answer  yourself? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  economic  evils  which  the  workman  faces  in  the 

manufacture  and  sale  of  textiles  and  clothing? 


CHAPTER  IX 
SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING 

Conditions  in  Women's  Dress. — Thoughtful  women  have  been 
endeavoring  for  many  years  to  bring  about  changes  in  dress  which 
will  give  it  greater  simplicity,  beauty,  and  efficiency,  eliminate 
rapidly  changing  fashions,  produce  a  more  or  less  standard  business 
or  every-day  gown,  and  base  the  purchase  of  clothing  on  economic 
principles.  The  conditions  of  the  time  have  given  force  to  this 
movement.  The  training  of  women  was  needed  to  accomplish  these 
reforms  with  any  permanency,  and  Clothing  and  Textile  Sections 
of  Home  Economics  Departments  in  colleges  and  technical  schools 
began  to  prepare  the  ground  with  excellent  results  which  have  been 
more  evident  every  year.  The  courses  offered  have  increased  in 
value  and  scope,  and  now  cover  such  subjects  as  methods  of  manu- 
facture of  textiles  with  laboratory  work  in  testing,  courses  in  laun- 
dering, spot  removal,  dyeing,  and  cleaning;  the  relation  of  the 
consumer  to  those  who  make  garments  and  those  who  sell  them; 
intelligence  in  shopping;  the  budget  of  clothing  and  the  selection 
of  the  wardrobe  for  differing  incomes;  sociology  as  related  to  the 
home,  the  employment  and  the  civic  life  of  women;  business 
methods;  practical  economics  for  woman's  life;  the  retail  trade 
and  the  elimination  of  abuses  which  have  grown  up  through  woman's 
ignorance  of  business;  art  and  historic  dress;  interior  furnishing 
and  decoration  and  practical  work  in  dressmaking,  millinery,  emr 
broidery,  and  costume  design. 

The  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  in  1914  took  up  with 
enthusiasm  the  movement  toward  more  sensible  clothing  for  women. 
The  conclusion  was  reached  that  a  standardization  of  women's 
street  garments  was  immediately  needed.  By  the  word  "  standard- 
ization "  it  was  not  intended  that  all  women  should  go  into  uniform 
dress.  In  the  words  of  the  Federation  what  was  needed  was  "  a 
principle  and  not  a  uniform."  The  chairman  of  the  Home  Eco- 
nomics Department,  Miss  Helen  Louise  Johnson  (once  editor  of 
the  General  Federation  Magazine),  took  the  lead  in  considering  the 

121 


122  CLOTHING 

subject  from  many  angles.  A  gown  was  later  brought  out,  called 
the  Biennial  Dress  (Fig.  10),  to  meet  the  demand.  Miss  Johnson 
has  contributed  the  following  description  of  the  work  done  and  of 
the  gown : 

"  The  Biennial  Dress  "  was  the  result  of  a  resolution  passed  by 
the  delegates  of  the  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  at  the 
Biennial  Convention  held  in  Chicago  in  1914.  The  resolution  put 
the  convention  on  record  as  favoring  more  modest,  simple,  and 
better  designs  in  women's  clothes.  Following  this  convention  a 
study  made  by  the  Home  Economics  Department  of  the  Federation 
revealed  the  unrest  and  dissatisfaction  with  prevailing  conditions 
on  the  part  of  both  producer  and  consumer.  The  seasonal  condi- 
tions of  the  trade,  the  constantly  changing  styles,  and  their  ex- 
tremes made  the  cost  of  manufacture  and  the  selling  prices  high, 
and  of  necessity  added  to  the  expense  of  women's  clothes.  AY  hat 
could  be  suggested  as  a  remedy?  The  answer  was  "more 
complete  standardization/' 

Later  it  became  necessary  to  formulate  some  ideas  or  rules 
upon  which  standardization  might  be  based.  To  do  this  a  number 
of  experts  were  called  in  consultation.  They  decided  that  any  dress 
designed  and  presented  as  a  style  to  be  universally  worn  must  be 
straight  in  line,  adapted,  if  proportioned  correctly,  to  varying 
sizes,  capable  of  reproduction  in  all  kinds  of  fabrics,  and  of  being 
made  as  a  suit  or  a  dress. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  10)  shows  the  dress  selected  and  presented 
at  the  New  York  Biennial  Convention  of  the  General  Federation 
in  1916.  A  is  the  first  one  designed  and  is  still  being  worn  by  its 
owner.  It  is  made  of  oyster-white  pongee,  the  under  waist,  to 
which  the  skirt  and  sleeves  are  attached,  being  of  lighter  weight 
silk.  The  Russian  tunic  may  or  may  not  be  separate  from  the 
under  slip.  The  fronts  and  collar  of  washable  material  are  snapped 
on.  B  is  made  of  crepe-de-Chine  and  fastens  at  one  side  under  the 
collar.  A'  and  Bf  show  the  underslips.  If  desired,  -the  dress  can 
be  made  in  one  piece.  In  fact,  the  garment  is  improved  by  a 
straighter  waist  line  than  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  These 
gowns  are  pleated,  but  they  can  be  gathered  or  made  plain.  The 
style  is  capable  of  such  modifications  in  material,  length  of  tunic, 
kind  of  collar,  belt,  or  sash  as  men's  coats  display  in  such  minor 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING 


123 


FIQ.   10. — The  Biennial  D« 


124  CLOTHING 

details.  The  idea  is  the  same  as  that  underlying  men's  garments 
which  to  the  feminine  eye  seem  to  vary  comparatively  little  from 
year  to  year.  A  man  wears  a  suit  without  comment  or  feeling  con- 
spicuous until  it  is  worn  out.  A  woman's  suit  often  goes  out  of 
style  in  a  few  months. 

The  reason  why  a  man's  suit,  made  of  excellent  material  and 
well  tailored,  can  be  sold  at  half  the  price  asked  for  a  woman's  is 
due  to-  more  complete  standardization.  If  women  desire  as  great 
emancipation  from  the  rapid  and  absurd  changes  of  fashion  which 
exhaust  time  and  energy ;  if  they  wish  freedom  expressed  in  sane, 
attractive,  stylish  garments,  they  must  work  out  for  themselves 
some  form- of  dress  that  will  always  remain  in  style,  will  always  be 
worn,  will  always  be  found  in  the  market,  and  for  which  there  is 
sufficient  demand  to  enable  the  ready-to-wear  trade  to  sell  for 
reasonable  prices. 

The  desire  was  to  present  a  form  of  dress;  which  was  becoming, 
smart^and  attractive;  adapted  to  all  the  little  changes  to  which 
men's, cgats  are  subject  that  prevent  monotony  even  when  the  style 
is  virtually  the  same.  There  may  be  more  variety  with  the  same 
style  of  gown  in  women's  clothes  on  account  of  the  greater  range  of 
fabrics  from  which  to  choose. 

'  The  dress  has  been  put  on  the  market  in  many  modified  forms. 
It  Jias^never  appeared  as  the  Biennial  Dress,  copyrighted  and 
manufactured -as  such  for  the  ready-to-wear  trade.  Patterns  suffi- 
ciefitly  like  it  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  its  home  manufacture  are  now 
to  be  found.  Any  good  dressmaker  can  make  it,  and  the  drawings 
show  the  details  exceedingly  well.  A  dressmaker  made  B;  a  tailor 
made  A  (Fig.  10).  Suits  have  been  made  like  it  and  when  prop- 
erly proportioned  are  becoming  and  attractive.  At  one  exhibit  of 
these  dresses  given  January,  1919,  six  were  made  on  the  same  model, 
yet  no  two  alike. 

Women  can  no  longer  afford  to  be  careless  or  selfish  in  their 
dressing.  The  disastrous  effect  on  other  women  is  too  great.  Sim- 
plification means  standardization.  It  does  not  indicate  that  women 
should  resort  to  less  attractive  or  beautiful  modes  of  dressing.  The 
house  gowns  may  vary  within  the  widest  range  of  fancy.  It  is  tin- 
street  clothes,  the  office,  the  school,  the  business  clothes  of  women  that 
we  tnust  try,  to  have  made  and  worn  in  sane,  sensible  and  economic 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  125 

ways.  Many  women  in  the  United  States  are  already  wearing 
standard  dress  in  their  every-day  occupations  in  that  they  buy  gar- 
ments so  made  that  they  can  be  used  until  they  are  worn  out — 
simple  in  construction,  requiring  little  repair  or  renovation,  and 
easy  to  put  on.  Their  time  is  not  wasted,  therefore,  in  innumer- 
able petty  adjustments  or  in  the  tiresome  fitting  and  making  of 
new,  fashionable  garments  as  heretofore.  The  call  on  women  dur- 
ing the  years  of  war  for  national  service  has  still  further  empha- 
sized the  need  of  more  appropriate  dress  for  every-day  wear. 

The  Effect  of  the  War  on  Clothing. — All  the  warring  nations 
suffered  from  lack  of  clothing.  England  brought  out  standard 
cloths  in  cheviots  and  serge  which  gave  the  maximum  efficiency 
with  a  minimum  cost.  There  were  also  manufactured  for  the 
people  standard  gloves,  hosiery,  underwear,  suits,  and  blankets. 
Experiments  with  paper  textiles  were  also  a  success,  cloth  being 
made  with  the  warp  cotton  and  the  filling  of  paper  yarn.  These 
fabrics  were  waterproofed  and  used  for  sou'westers  and  waistcoats. 
The  experience  of  England  during  the  war  as  stated  by  one  of  her 
retail  merchants  (himself  an  American)  was  that  "business  was 
good,  but  had  changed  from  the  sale  of  elaborate,  showy  dress  and 
accessories  to  good  substantial  clothing,  that  the  English  women 
had  not  ceased  to  buy,  but  had  changed  their  demands  to  a  more 
enduring  class  of  garment,  and  were  buying  fewer  luxuries  than 
before";  consequently,  the  stores  were  ceasing  to  offer  them.  The 
extravagant  buyers  there,  as  here,  were  women  who  were  making 
more  money  than  ever  before  in  the  war  industries.  France  made 
standard  cloth  for  her  refugees,  the  price  being  one-half  of  the 
market  prices  for  other  goods.  Long  cloaks  were  planned  for 
women  and  Russian  blouses  for  children,  made  of  black,  brown,  and 
gray  mixtures  of  cotton  and  wool.  In  the  United  States  war 
changes  appeared  in  the  style  of  making  men's  suits  and  overcoats, 
unnecessary  parts  being  eliminated.  The  National  Association  of 
^Manufacturers  of  Women's  Garments  also  adopted  resolutions  (at 
their  meetings)  to  make  ready-to-wear  garments  for  women  with 
less  material  and  fewer  modes,  but  the  changes  in  this  direction 
were  insignificant. 

Germany  and  Austria  and  Russia  were  particularly  short  in  the 
raw  materials  used  in  clothing.  Requests  for  all  varieties  of  cloth 


126  CLOTHING 

were  made  by  Germany  on  Belgium  until  little  was  left  there. 
Even  though  the  war  is  over,  there  will  be  need  of  strict  con- 
servation in  clothing  for  a  long  time,  for  the  European  peoples 
are  almost  destitute  of  supplies,  and  the  United  States  must  fur- 
nish them. 

Clothing  Conservation. — Dress  has  many  phases — economic, 
aesthetic,  ethical — wrhich  makes  the  subject  difficult  to  deal  with  by 
enactment.  The  lives  of  women  vary  so  fundamentally  that  a 
single  standard  suit  set  up  for  women's  dress  would  not  be  satis- 
factory to  all.  It  is  said  that  80  per  cent,  of  the  "women  of  the 
country  do  their  own  housework.  For  every  woman  to  wear  the 
same  style  of  dress  as  an  economic  measure  would  defeat  itself,  for 
no  one  kind  could  meet  the  conditions.  A  uniform  fitted  for  office 
service  would  be  of  little  use  to  home  workers  in  their  housework. 
Supplies  of  partly  worn  garments  are  stored  away  in  many  homes, 
during  the  period  of  after-war  economy  these  should  be  worn  out 
before  the  owner  buys  or  makes  others.  While  it  is  impossible  for 
any  one  person  to  decide  upon  the  sort  of  standard  garment  fitted 
for  the  women  of  the  nation,  there  is  immediate  need  for  every 
woman  to  face  the  question  for  herself.  She  should  consider  the 
demands  of  life  upon  her,  the  advantages  in  buying  staple  tex- 
tiles, the  minimum  requirements  for  her  clothing,  and  then  plan 
to  standardize  her  own  dress.  Lavish  expense  for  personal  adorn- 
ment is  wrong  at  the  present  time  when  nations  are  suffering  from 
inadequate  clothing,  and  the  temptation  placed  before  women  to  buy 
such  goods  should  be  discouraged.  It  would  help  industry  during 
the  reconstruction  period  if  the  consumer  would  cease  to  ask  for  the 
non-essentials  and  rapidly  passing  fashions  in  fabrics  and  garments 
and  keep  to  staples. 

There  is  no  need  for  woman's  dress  to  be  any  less  attractive 
because  less  is  spent  upon  it,  unless  the  buyer  has  reached  the 
poverty  line  where  no  commodity  can  be  purchased  in  the  best  con- 
dition. A  neat,  attractive  appearance  should  be  the  aim  of  every 
woman.  The  soldier  fights  better  when  well  dressed,  and  he  is 
obliged  to  wear  well-cut  and  well-kept  uniforms.  He  is  inspected 
daily  to  see  that  he  does  not  relax  in  his  personal  appearance.  His 
clothing  is  adapted  to  its  use  and  is  lacking  in  extravagance,  but 
absolute  perfection  is  demanded  in  it.  Clothes  are  as  important 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  127 

to  the  workers  at  home  as  to  the  soldier.  Well-appearing,  strong 
garments  appropriate  to  the  work  to  be  done  cannot  be  called  non- 
essentials,  for  they  will  keep  the  wearer  at  hard,  dull  tasks  while 
slovenly  attire  will  take  the  courage  and  enthusiasm  out  of  him. 
Self-respect  requires  that  the  individual  should  be  neat  and  pleas- 
ing in  dress,  and  success  in  life  requires  it.  Poorly  dressed  people 
keep  away  from  their  fellows,  for  they  feel  conscious  of  inferiority 
beyond  the  mere  outward  clothing.  Satisfactory  attire  does  not 
require  showy  clothing,  innumerable  changes,  or  expensive  decora- 
tion. Serious  conditions  all  over  the  world  are  calling  for  the 
readjustment  of  ideals  of  dress  of  both  men  and  women ;  the  foolish 
extravagant  dressing  should  pass,  and  something  suited  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  times,  which  is  both  dignified  and  pleasing  should 
take  its  place.  (See  Chapter  I,  "The  Importance  of  Dress.") 

Many  women  are  trying  to  get  a  rational  view  of  the  entire 
clothing  situation  that  they  may  know  how  to  meet  it,  and  thus 
dress  themselves  and  their  families  with  due  regard  to  sensible 
standards  as  well  as  to  their  personal  appearance  and  health.  The 
problem  has  many  puzzling  sides  to  it,  for  materials  and  clothing 
are  still  expensive  and  labor  is  hard  to  obtain  and  high  in  price. 
The  educated  class  that  has  a  fair  income  but  no  increase  over 
former  times,  and  business  and  professional  women  with  small  in- 
comes are  endeavoring  to  find  the  wisest  way  to  spend  the  money 
they  have  with  good  results,  even  though  everything  is  higher  than 
before.  Many  of  these  women  are  standardizing  their  dress  and 
are  having  made  or  buying  good  conservative  models  that  will  last 
for  several  years. 

Uniform  Dress. — Women  were  summoned  to  all  varieties  of 
service  during  the  war  and  their  clothing  was  often  little  adapted  to 
the  heavy  work  required  of  them.  When  the  call  first  came,  they 
trooped  to  work  in  anything  they  had,  and  middy  blouses,  outing 
clothing,  lingerie  waists,  good  cloth  suits,  and  high-heeled  shoes 
were  all  in  evidence,  and  were  soon  found  to  be  inappropriate  and 
extravagant.  Gradually,  varieties  of  service  clothing  appeared; 
some,  such  as  the  overalls  and  farmerettes,  seemed  at  first  extreme 
and  wrere  denounced  by  many  as  unwomanly,  but  even  these  finally 
won  their  way.  College  girls  helped  to  introduce  styles  in  service 
uniforms  or  overalls  through  using  them  in  land  service  and  in  fruit 


128  CLOTHING 

picking.  Many  southern  home  demonstration  agents  adopted  an 
inexpensive  and  appropriate  summer  travelling  dress  of  gray-blue 
wash  material  with  white  collars  and  cuffs  and  a  plain  black  hat. 
These  uniforms  were  ordered  in  wholesale  quantities,  thus  reducing 
the  expense,  each  agent  buying  about  four.  Special  classes  of  work 
require  appropriate  uniform;  overalls  and  trouser  suits  are  the 
only  safe  and  fitting  garments  for  heavy  work  in  mechanical  trades 
and  for  farm  work  in  the  field.  During  the  war  there  gradually 
appeared  twenty  or  more  officially  recognized  styles  of  uniforms, 
and  thousands  of  women  were  thus  attired.  The  majority  of  these 
suits  had  substantial  coats  or  capes  and  skirts  with  a  hat  or  cap  of 
some  special  style  and  a  brassard  on  the  arm  to  denote  the  branch 
Of  service.  The  dress  of  yeowomen,  some  United  States  Govern- 
ment workers,  the  Shipping  Board,  the  Food  Administration,  the 
Red  Cross,  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  the  Radio 
Corps,  the  Telephone  Unit  of  the  United  States  Signal  Corps,  the 
Motor  Corps,  nurses,  doctors,  overseas  workers,  trolley  conductors, 
police  reserves,  and  other  branches  soon  became  familiar  and  was 
pleasing  to  the  eye  as  well  as  useful  in  service.  Such  uniforms,  be- 
speaking efficient  clothing,  set  a  foundation  for  sensible  business 
dress  for  women.  Many,  attracted  by  the  dignity  and  endurance 
of  the  uniform,  wish  that  all  women  could  dress  in  as  satisfactory 
a  way  for  their  daily  work.  Clothing  for  every  day  which  will 
eliminate  changing  style  features,  will  not  hinder  or  endanger  the 
wearer,  and  will  give  long  service  is  needed  now  and  for  the  future. 
Already,  without  real  appreciation  of  the  fact  and  as  if  in  prepara- 
tion, women's  garments  have  been  eliminating  unnecessary  features, 
and  for  several  years  there  have  been  few  changes  of  style,  yet 
clothing  has  been  attractive.  Utility  has  become  a  dominant  note 
in  the  service  dress  of  to-day  and  every  effort  to  retain  this  step  ahead 
should  be  made.  (See  Chapter  I,  "Some  Callings  Require,  etc.") 
Every-day  Clothing. — If  a  number  of  influential  women  would 
adopt  for  constant  use  a  few  conservative  garments,  such  as  a  coat 
and  skirt  with  a  simple  waist,  or  a  one-piece  gown  and  an  out-of- 
door  coat,  each  style  being  made  in  a  number  of  models  and  with  a 
variation  of  material,  the  manufacturers  of  textiles  would  be  glad 
to  provide  strong,  enduring  cloth  for  the  purpose,  the  ready-to-wear 
trade  would  bring  out  satisfactory  suits  and  gowns,  and  the  better 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  129 

class  of  retail  houses  would  gladly  carry  them.  Cloth  for  women's 
clothing  will  not  be  made  as  strong  and  simple  as  men's  suiting 
unless  many  women  demand  it,  and  the  manner  of  making  ready-to- 
wear  suits  for  every-day  wear  will  continue  to  be  according  to  con- 
stantly changing  fashion  and  in  passing  materials  as  heretofore, 
unless  the  manufacturers  see  that  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of 
women  desiring  more  enduring  garments  and  willing  to  pay  a  fair 
price  for  them.  The  willingness  of  the  trade  to  please  the  public 
has  been  already  shown  in  the  gowns  for  every-day  wear  during 
war-time  which  were  brought  out  in  response  to  the  request  of 
groups  of  young  women.  Wanamaker,  of  New  York,  and  Filene,  of 
Boston,  have  produced  conservative  garments  of  cotton,  silk,  and 
mohair  designed  by  members  of  the  Junior  League  of  those  cities. 
These  models  were  suited  to  all  ages,  required  the  minimum  of 
material,  were  not  high  in  price,  and  conserved  the  class  of  wool 
needed  by  the  army.  They  were  for  sale  also  to  the  general  public. 
If  this  could  be  done  during  the  war,  a  sufficient  demand  would 
bring  a  similar  result  at  the  present  time. 

The  two-piece  tailored  street  suits  or  the  one-piece  coat  suit  are 
virtually  standard,  and  it  will  not  require  any  real  change  in 
methods  of  dressing  for  women  to  select  the  models  that  suit  them 
and  the  quality  of  fabric  that  will  endure,  and  wear  them  until  they 
are  worn  out.  A  well-made  business  suit  fits  the  majority  of  occa- 
sions in  life,  and  for  home  makers  simple  tailored  cotton  garments 
are  on  the  market. 

Definite  principles  which  would  underly  the  selection  of  outer 
clothing  are  as  follows :  A  gown  should  be  appropriate  to  the  occu- 
pation, to  the  wearer,  and  to  the  part  of  the  country  where  it  is 
used.  The  climate  in  some  sections  of  the  United  States  demands 
light  material  rather  than  heavy  wool.  The  duties  of  the  house- 
keeper make  cotton  a  usual  textile  for  service  in  the  homes,  but  as 
12,000,000  women1  are  at  work  outside  of  the  homes,  and  many  of 
them  are  in  parts  of  the  country  where  warm  garments  are  re- 
quired much  of  the  year,  one  wool  suit  for  daily  service  becomes  a 
necessity.  The  plain  tailored  cloth  is  the  best  for  business,  but  a 
dark,  simply  made  cotton  gown  is  more  suitable  for  many  domestic 
occupations.  If  there  are  old  suits  on  hand,  they  should  be  made 

1  Hearing  of  Joint  C'/ommittee  on  Labor,  66th  Congress,  1920, 
9 


130  CLOTHING 

to  serve  as  long  as  possible,  thus  making  unnecessary  the  purchase 
of  new  garments,  but  the  habit  of  wearing  old  finery  at  one's  work, 
such  as  light  silk  waists,  soiled  chiffon,  and  dressy  gowns  tends  to 
extravagance  and  slovenly  attire  and  should  be  stopped.  A  pale 
blue  cotton  gown  with  white  apron,  collar  and  cuffs  is  often  worn 
by  a  woman  for  her  light  housekeeping,  for  supervision  in  com- 
munity service,  or  for  the  teaching  of  cookery,  but  for  heavy  clean- 
ing or  for  gardening,  it  is  not  appropriate,  for  it  soon  becomes 
soiled  and  worn,  and  the  dress  of  heavy  cotton  twill,  overalls,  or  the 
trousers  and  tunic  are  better  suited  for  this.  The  woman  thus 
attired  continues  to  look  well  in  spite  of  the  dirt,  and  her  clothing 
is  not  injured.  The  business  woman  and  the  housekeeper  have, 
therefore,  altogether  different  problems,  but,  on  the  whole,  a  few 
models  will  cover  all  requirements.  The  every-day  dress  should  be 
made  with  due  regard  to  comfort.  Too  tight  clothing  either  to 
walk  or  work  in  shows  a  lack  of  common  sense  in  the  wearer.  Such 
garments  should  not  take  much  time  to  put  on  or  off,  and  should 
have  the  minimum  of  fastenings  and  trimmings  which  are  not  easily 
disarranged  or  soiled.  Pockets,  which  can  be  used,  should  be  in 
every  gown. 

Flimsy  silk  stockings  also  are  not  fitted  for  heavy  service,  and  it 
is  an  extravagance  to  buy  them  for  such  a  purpose.  Silk  hosiery 
that  will  endure  is  too  high  in  price  for  the  majority  of  working 
women,  and  the  temptation  to  buy  those  that  are  not  good  has  been 
too  great  for  many  who  have  not  realized  that  they  will  not  wear 
as  well  as  a  good  cotton  stocking.  (See  Chapter  VI,  section 
"  Knit  Goods.") 

The  clothing  should  be  hygienic,  meeting  the  requirements  for 
the  best  bodily  development  and  service.  The  dress  of  the  day,  in  its 
inadequate  covering  of  the  body  is  not  only  immodest,  but  endangers 
health.  To  wear  such  thin  clothing  that  it  is  necessary  to  shave  the 
hair  from  under  the  arm$>  is  repellent  to  people  of  refinement. 
The  tight  skirt  is  a  menace,  and  one  railroad,  at  least,  has  refusnl 
to  grant  damages  to  women  injured  by  the  trains,  when  wearing 
such  ..-kin-. 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  for  woman  in  her  working  life  is  the 
sensible  shoe.  Work  as  well  as  health  require  a  good,  firm,  low- 
heeled  shoe,  the  shape  of  the  foot.  Old  worn-out  slippers,  shoes 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  131 

with  run-down  heels,  high-heeled,  pointed-toed  shoes  or  slippers 
are  not  appropriate  for  work  and  will  soon  undermine  the  health. 
Many  women  who  complain  of  excessive  fatigue  at  the  end  of  the 
day  while  running  an  elevator  or  working  in  a  store  or  office  have 
their  shoes  to  thank  for  their  condition  (Figs.  5  to  9) .  (See  Chapter 
VII,  section  "Keep  the  Body  Unhampered  and  Comfortable.") 

The  cloth  in  suits  and  gowns  must  be  durable,  for  only  thus  can 
it  be  depended  upon  to  give  the  wear  required  by  an  economical 
buyer.  Plain  or  mixed  suitings  in  soft*,  dark  hues  are  more  sat- 
isfactory for  constant  wear  than  brilliant  or  pale  colors.  Elaborate 
trimming  is  apt  to  be  quickly  dulled,  thus  giving  a  shabby  look  to  a 
gown,  therefore,  business  dress  should  be  without  it,  except  in 
bands,  belts,  collars,  and  cuffs  of  the  cloth  itself.  In  order  to  en- 
liven a  dull  gown  a  small  bright  bit  of  color  can  be  used,  or  simple 
white  collars  and  cuffs  or  vestees,  which  are  detachable  and  can  be 
laundered  frequently,  give  the  individuality  desired.  It  is  in  the 
power  of  girls  and  women  to  make  huge  savings  by  simplifying  the 
decoration  of  outer  clothing,  by  omitting  all  unnecessary  laces  or 
ribbons  in  underclothing,  and  by  going  without  elaborate  belts, 
cheap  jewelry,  and  showy  neckwear.  Self -trimming  on  gowns  and 
underclothing  can  be  attractive,  and  a  bit  of  hand  embroidery  can 
be  more  beautiful  than  elaborate  passementerie  and  insets  of 
cheap  lace. 

Life  in  large  cities  demands  more  formal  attire  than  does  life 
in  the  country.  The  cooler  parts  of  the  country  require  a  greater 
outlay  in  warm  garments.  Each  woman,  therefore,  must  decide 
for  herself  and  family  the  essentials  in  clothing  for  health,  comfort 
and  endurance.  There  should  be  in  the  wardrobe  as  few  garments 
as  possible  at  any  one  time.  Each  dress  should  be  worn  to  the  end 
of  its  service,  that  fewer  new  ones  may  be  needed.  Labor  is  called 
upon  for  all  we  buy  and  the  continued  buying  of  poor  and  unneces- 
sary garments  is  followed  by  the  effort  of  the  market  to  supply  the 
kind  of  commodities  to  take  the  place  of  that  which  has  gone. 
"  What  we  buy  we  make."  The  labor  going  into  millions  of  yards 
of  cheap,  transient  wool  and  cotton  goods  would  be  saved  for  the 
cheapening  of  the  cost  of  living  in  our  own  country,  or  for  furnishing 
supplies  for  Europe,  if  the  men  and  women  of  the  United  States 
would  restrict  their  use  of  them.  The  average  person  can  readily 


132  CLOTHING 

get  along  with  fewer  garments,  for  it  has  become  a  habit  to  have 
many  changes,  and  in  the  end  the  garments  are  not  worn  out,  but 
are  simply  laid  aside  for  some  new  style.  One  good,  new  wool  gown 
annually  should  be  sufficient  for  any  citizen  at  the  present  time  and 
many  do  not  need  that.  Pleats,  stripes,  and  fancy  cloths  take  more 
material  than  plain  goods.  Some  patterns  require  more  yards  of 
cloth  than  others  and  more  labor  to  complete.  Selection  should  be 
made  with  conservation  as  its  aim. 

Inconspicuous  and  unobtrusive  clothing  should  be  the  ideal. 
It  should  be  repellent  to  all  while  nations  are  faced  with  famine, 
cold,  and  hardships,  to  wear  extremes  of  fashion,  which  denote  the 
thoughtless  and  irresponsible  citizen  drawing  unnecessarily  upon 
limited  supplies  of  labor  and  materials. 

The  Personal  Element. — Style  is  a  part  of  the  gown,  but  is 
emphasized  or  lessened  by  the  way  it  is  worn.  An  immaculate, 
well-groomed  appearance,  even  with  a  very  simple  garment,  goes 
far  toward  making  the  wearer  pleasing  to  the  eye.  A  soiled, 
crushed  blouse;  an  untidy  skirt;  a  hat  with  faded  finery;  stock- 
ings with  breaks  in  the  knitting;  shabby,  run-down-at-the-heel 
shoes,  and  gloves  with  holes  in  them  will  ruin  the  appearance  of 
even  an  unusually  attractive  person.  The  carriage  of  the  body  is 
also  important,  and  a  cheerful,  pleasant  expression  and  an  erect 
bearing  will  increase  the  good  effect  of  the  costume.  Personality  is 
indicated  by  dress — the  selection  of  textile,  of  color,  and  of  form  of 
garment;  the  condition  of  it  when  worn  and  the  manner  of  wearinir. 
The  world  is  forming  its  judgment  of  the  individual  largely  by 
these  outer  marks  of  inner  traits.  Personal  appearance  becomes, 
therefore,  a  factor  in  success. 

Harmonious  dress  is  not  of  necessity  an  expense,  and  simplicity 
can  go  with  the  highest  ideals  of  beauty.  The  study  of  art  as  con- 
nected with  woman's  dress  has  not  had  the  attention  it  should  have 
had  in  the  United  States,  for  style  has  been  the  ideal  rather  than 
artistic  line  and  comfortable,  enduring  garments.  Even  artists 
thoroughly  conversant  with  principles  of  beauty  have  failed  in 
carrying  out  those  ideals  in  costume.  The  United  States  has  been 
negligent  in  training  its  school  children  to  use  art  practically  in 
designs  of  the  simplest  household  articles  and  garments  of  every- 
day life.  France  has  not  neglected  this,  consequently  that  nation 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  133 

has  been  the  designer  of  woman's  dress  as  well  as  the  leader  in  tex- 
tile design.  A  movement  for  American  dress  design  has  begun,  and 
every  citizen  should  feel  it  his  duty  to  forward  it.  At  first,  the 
majority  of  people  will  be  appealed  to  more  by  the  foreign  modes 
they  are  used  to  seeing,  for  French  ideals  of  dress  have  long  been 
with  us  and  France  has  been  prepared  for  the  work  by  long  art 
training,  while  this  country  is  only  beginning.  American  artists 
are  endeavoring,  however,  to  meet  the  situation,  and  almost  every 
large  city  has  people  at  work  designing,  on  paper  or  on  cloth,  gar- 
ments which  are  founded  on  principles  of  beauty  and  which  will 
continue  to  be  attractive  in  line  and  color  as  long  as  they  last. 
Associations  of  Dress  Designers  are  emphasizing  the  use  of  cloth 
and  clothing  designed  and  made  in  America.  Exhibits  have  lately 
been  held  showing  excellent  results,  and  trade  journals  have  given 
space  to  illustrations  of  textiles  and  garments  designed  in  the 
TTnited  States.  Our  museums  are  visited  more  than  ever  before 
for  suggestions  from  the  primitive  arts  of  our  own  or  foreign 
countries,  and  stenciling,  batik  work,  coarse  embroidery,  and 
bead  work  are  being  used  to  embellish  garments.  Each  woman 
should  study  the  laws  of  art  in  relation  to  her  dress,  that  she  may 
judge  wisely,  selecting  good  line,  right  proportion,  worthy  work- 
manship, and  attractive  color  in  relation  to  her  own  personality. 
Thus  she  will  have  harmonious  clothing.  It  pays  to  give  time  to 
attain  this,  for  once  gained  it  is  a  companion  for  life.  The  world 
needs  beauty  and  attention  to  the  laws  governing  it  will  increase  it. 
Artists  who  can  design  and  make  artistic  clothing  are  becoming 
more  numerous,  but  their  services  are  too  expensive  for  the  ma- 
jority of  people.  The  best  thing  is  for  each  woman  to  make  herself 
intelligent  in  these  matters.  She  will  thus  select  to  better  advan- 
tage and  this  will  react  on  the  ready-to-wear  trade. 

Dress  Hints. — Some  workers  are  especially  interested  in  solv- 
ing the  business  or  street  suit.  The  Norfolk  jacket,  the  Russian 
blouse,  the  peasant  cape,  and  the  tailored  suit  have  been  used  for 
foundations  for  designs,  and  garments  are  appearing  uniting  con- 
servation, moderate  expense,  good  cloth,  and  attractive  results 
(Fig.  10).  Artistic  workers  are  designing  gowns  for  dressier 
occasions,  the  one-piece  type  having  been  the  basis  for  many  of 
the  best  models.  The  tunic  has  been  largely  used,  for  it  is  full  of 


134 


CLOTHING 


artistic  possibilities  and  allows  for  much  variety  of  treatment  as 
well  as  material.  It  is  becoming  to  the  majority  of  people,  is  quickly 
and  easily  made,  and  takes  the  minimum  of  cloth.  The  long  tunic 


FIG.  13 


Fio.  12. 


FIG.  11. 


Fio.   11.— Simplest  slip  dress.    Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

FIG.  12. — The  simplest  slip  pattern.  The  easiest  way  to  make  this  slip  is  to  cut  the 
neck  size  first,  and  slip  the  cloth  over  the  head,  then  pin  the  front  to  the  back  into  an 
under  arm  seam.  Take  up  two  tucks,  one  each  side  of  the  front  and  the  width  necessary 
to  make  the  skirt  hang  well.  Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

FIG.  13. — Tunic  of  georgette  crCpe,  chiffon  cloth  or  marquisette.  It  may  be  stenciled 
or  embroidered  or  trimmed  with  beads  or  fringe.  Half  a  width  of  40"  material  is  sufficient. 
Frogs  of  gold  braid  fasten  the  back  and  front  together.  This  overdress  is  to  be  worn  over 
Fig.  11.  Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

can  take  the  place  of  a  complete  garment  and  soft  sashes,  cords,  or 
bead-strung  belts  are  used  to  girdle  it.  The  short  tunic  lends  itself 
to  dressy  effects,  or  in  the  jumper  form  made  of  cloth,  velvet,  or 
cotton  goods  is  useful  for  simple  every-day  gowns.  -Touches  of 
embroidery  in  harmonizing  or  contrasting  colors  give  these  garments 
personality  and  distinction. 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  135 

Slips  or  underfrocks  with  detachable  sleeves  have  also  been  de*- 
signed  (Fig.  11).  The  garment  is  so  constructed  that  it  can  serve 
for  an  outer  gown  or  can  be  worn  under  a  tunic,  an  overdress,  or  a 
fancy  coat.  It  thus  becomes  an  especially  economic  form  of  dress, 
serving  for  several  occasions.  For  the  traveller  it  is  very  desirable, 
for  a  slip  of  some  dark  silk  serves  for  a  travelling  dress,  and  a  tunic 
of  velvet  or  thin  material  can  be  carried  in  the  suit  case  and  make 
an  effective  gown  for  special  occasions.  For  a  pattern  for  such  a 
slip  see  Fig.  12.  Many  of  the  slips  are  made  without  se wed-in 
linings,  a  detachable  net  underwaist  being  used  instead,  which  can 
be  laundered  frequently.  Two  sets  of  sleeves  are  made  for  one  gar- 
ment, thus  making  it  comfortable  for  cold  or  warm  weather,  and 
still  further  increasing  its  service.  The  slip  is  made  fitted  to  the 
figure  or  loose  and  drawn  in  by  a  cord  inserted  in  the  material  at 
the  waist.  The  tunics  which  are  worn  over  the  slip  are  made  of 
pile  fabrics,  of  soft  cottons,  of  crepes,  chiffons,  marquisettes,  or  lace 
(Fig.  13).  Coats,  long  panels,  and  draped  overdresses  have  also 
been  designed  to  wear  over  slips.  Many  of  these  American  models 
are  charming;  numerous  fittings  are  unnecessary,  and  as  the  ma- 
jority of  them  are  not  close  fitted,  they  are  more  easily  adapted  to 
any  figure  than  were  the  former  tightly  fitted  garments.  The 
ready-to-wear  trade,  quick  to  seize  ideas,  is  bringing  out  similar 
models.  A  woman  making  her  clothes  at  home  can  have  a  simple 
foundation  pattern,  which  fits  her,  and  from  it  make  numerous 
changes.  Thus  she  can  have  ample  variety  with  the  minimum  of 
time  spent. 

The  art  of  practical  design  must  be  developed  to  a  higher  point 
with  us,  however,  if  we  are  to  succeed  industrially.  The  Art  Alli- 
ance of  America  is  working  for  this  in  all  branches  of  industry.  It 
is  felt  that  a  reaction  toward  beauty  will  come  as  a  result  of  the 
terrible  war  conditions  under  which  the  world  has  been  living,  and 
the  development  of  the  garment  trade  toward  better  designing  will 
be  a  part  of  the  movement. 

Two  important  points  have  been  reached  already :  First,  in  the 
recognition  that  women  looked  well  in  their  neat  war  service  uni- 
forms. The  appropriateness  and  dignity  of  this  style  of  useful 
dress  are  appreciated  and  women,  in  general,  are  showing  a  desire 
to  increase  the  efficiency,  comfort,  and  beauty  of  their  every-day 


136  CLOTHING 

attire  in  a  similar  way,  but  not  by  adopting  uniforms.  Second, 
the  artistic  possibilities  of  the  underslip  and  the  variations  of 
overtunics  which  are  making  gowns  for  dressy  occasions  beautiful 
yet  outside  of  the  extremes  of  fashion  and  not  necessarily  expensive. 

Dress  should  be  considered  important  enough,  on  account  of  its 
effect  on  the  public  at  large  and  on  the  individual,  for  adequate 
attention  to  be  given  to  its  selection.  It  should  then  be  forgotten 
unless  repairs  are  needed.  But  to  buy  a  dress  and  then  spend  time 
trying  to  find  ways  to  change  it  or  to  wander  about  stores  to  see  if 
some  new  idea  has  come  out  which  can  be  immediately  utilized  on 
it,  or  to  put  it  aside  for  some  infinitesimal  lack  of  the  latest  style,  is 
foolishness  and  complete  waste. 

The  choice  of  color  is  significant  in  the  effect  dress  may  have  on 
the  eye  and  the  nerves  of  the  public.  Black  and  all  very  dark  colors 
make  a  figure  look  smaller,  consequently  are  desirable  for  very 
stout  people.  In  general,  a  thick,  dull,  black  is  unbecoming,  for  it 
makes  the  person  look  sallow  and  old.  A  thin,  transparent  black, 
especially  if  relieved  by  a  little  creamy  white  or  soft  broken  color  at 
the  neck  is  apt  to  be  becoming,  and  a  touch  of  bright  orange,  blue, 
or  rose  will  often  make  the  entire  effect  of  a  black  gown  more  pleas- 
ing. Dark  blue  can  be  worn  by  the  majority  of  people.  The  grays 
are  becoming  to  some,  especially  if  running  toward  cream  rather 
than  toward  blue.  Broken  colors  of  all  kinds  (those  which  are 
slightly  gray  in  tone)  are  more  pleasing  than  the  crude  blues,  reds, 
purples,  and  greens.  Harmony  may  be  attained  in  a  costume  by 
using  related  colors,  as  when  a  brown  dress  has  a  touch  of  orange 
in  it.  Contrasts  of  violet  with  yellow  or  red  with  greenish  blue 
are  apt  to  be  too  pronounced,  unless  the  very  gray  tones  of  these 
colors  are  used  and  the  designer  is  an  artist.  Outer  coats  of  crude 
reds,  yellows,  blues,  and  greens  are  not  becoming,  for  the  coloring 
of  the  complexion  loses  brilliancy  in  contrast.  The  main  body  of 
a  gown  or  the  outer  coat  is  more  becoming  and  harmonious  to  the 
wearer  if  it  is  in  the  duller,  softer  colors.  It  is  safe  for  a  person 
to  note  the  tones  in  her  skin,  hair,  and  eyes,  and  buy  garments 
that  will  make  them  more  attractive,  and  not  try  to  outdo  them. 
Sport  clothing  out-of-doors  can  have  the  brilliancy  of  crude  color 
and  not  offend  good  taste.  Older  people  with  hair  gradually  losing 
color  and  with  the  complexion  dulling  cannot  ;ill'onl  to  wear  any- 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  137 

thing  but  the  soft,  broken  tones  for  the  main  body  of  the  gown  with 
a  splash  of  bright  color  only  to  relieve  it.  In  winter  the  warmer 
colors  are  more  pleasing  than  the  cold  ones,  but  in  summer  the  pale 
blues,  violets,  grays,  and  whites  are  refreshing  to  the  eye. 

The  demand  of  the  consumer  is  the  main  factor  in  the  supply 
of  fabrics  and  gowns.  The  articles  offered  for  sale  would  not  be 
made  if  the  promise  of  selling  them  were  not  good.  If  enduring 
materials,  more  efficient  dressing,  and  less  rapid  style  .changes  are 
wanted,  the  woman  shopper  must  show  it  or  the  present  conditions 
will  continue.  To  demand  the  best  and  to  express  disapproval 
when  a  store  has  misrepresented  goods  will  make  the  store  buyer 
more  careful  in  his  selection. 

All  left-over  clothing  should  be  used,  therefore,  every  woman 
should  look  at  the  garments  and  articles  hanging  in  the  closets  or 
laid  away  in  drawers  and  boxes  before  buying  new  ones.  The  one 
who  wears  made-over  clothing,  half-soled  and  repaired  shoes,  and 
has  a  limited  number  of  new  garments  and  those  of  the  best  quality 
is  in  good  company,  for  thoughtful,  patriotic  men  and  women  of 
the  country  are  doing  it.  In  one  of  the  states  during  the  war  the 
women  of  one  county  saved  $2500  by  remodelling  their  old  cloth- 
ing and  hats.  If  one  county  can  thus  help,  the  nation  at  large 
could  do  a  marvellous  work  of  conservation.  With  the  advance  in 
the  cost  of  cloth  and  of  ready-to-wear  garments,  each  woman  who 
has  dressed  well  on  her  income  in  the  past  must  now  reduce  the 
amount  of  clothing  she  has  been  accustomed  to  have,  as  prices  are 
likely  to  be  high  for  a  number  of  years.  The  woman  who  feels  this 
to  be  her  duty  and  opportunity  will  look  carefully  over  old  clothing 
before  buying  anything  new. 

It  is  not  expected  that  every  woman  will  make  her  own  clothing, 
for  many  have  their  time  too  full  of  more  important  occupations 
for  that,  but  if  a  woman  has  the  time,  which  can  be  better  occupied 
this  way  than  in  any  other  which  presents  itself  to  her,  she  can 
save  money  by  so  doing,  if  she  buys  material  carefully  and  is  a 
good  worker  on  garments. 

Every  woman  who  buys  or  makes  clothing  should  select  mate- 
rials and  styles  with  the  idea  that  health  is  to  be  conserved  by 
them.  Those  living  in  cold  climates  should  be  kept  warm,  but  wool 
is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  this  purpose.  Layera  of  cotton  in 


138  CLOTHING 

padded  linings  or  jackets,  or  paper  made  into  a  waistcoat  will  keep 
the  heat  from  passing  away;  even  thin  fabrics  over  a  knitted  or 
netting  underwaist  help  to  conserve  the  heat  of  the  body,  though 
they  may  not  be  sufficient  in  very  cold  weather.  To  buy  wool  with 
the  idea  that  health  requires  one  to  wear  it  in  winter,  and  then 
have  chiffon  sleeves  in  the  gown  is  defeating  its  service  and  mak- 
ing an  unnecessary  call  on  the  body  to  keep  up  its  heat.  (See 
Chapter  VII,  section  "  Keeping  Warm/') 

Overalls  are  appreciated  by  women  who  have  used  them  for 
performing  work  in  which  the  skirt  impedes.  When  the  man  of 
the  household  is  away  and  the  wife  has  to  attend  to  the  work  in  or 
about  a  suburban  home,  she  finds  the  overalls  a  boon  in  such  tasks 
as  making  the  furnace  fire,  digging  up  the  garden,  getting  the  ice 
from  the  icehouse  and  putting  it  into  the  refrigerator,  rubbing  down 
or  harnessing  the  horse,  repairing  the  shingles  on  the  roof,  cleaning 
the  automobile,  or  even  in  cleaning  the  house.  The  garment  may 
not  be  a  thing  of  beauty,  but  most  women  have  not  time  to  be  solely 
things  of  beauty  during  the  working  hours.  A  skirt  is  not  only 
impeding,  for  many  household  demands,  but  is  sometimes  positively 
dangerous.  The  overall,  which  is  the  cheapest  form  of  hard-work 
dress,  or  the  trousers  and  tunic,  which  may  be  made  very  attractive, 
have  come  to  stay  as  measures  of  conservation.  The  majority  of 
women  do  not  want  to  wear  a  uniform  of  any  kind  all  of  the  time, 
but  if  they  are  to  do  the  hard  work  of  the  world  they  must  be 
allowed  to  dress  in  the  way  to  save  their  strength.  After  the  work 
of  the  day  is  over,  they  will  be  glad  to  slip  into  the  soft  textures  and 
sweeping  lines  of  the  old-time  dress  and  rest  and  enjoy  life. 

A  gown  made  of  good  material,  in  a  quiet,  harmonious  color, 
simple  in  line,  conservative  in  use  of  cloth,  and  suited  to  the 
wearer  is  a  pleasure  to  the  eye  which  rests  upon  it.  Every  woman 
can  have  clothing  of  this  kind. 

A  garment  can  be  too  broken  into  spaces  for  good  results.  The 
effect  is  tiresome  to  the  eye  to  see  lines  stopped  and  cross  lines 
intervening,  no  matter  how  beautiful  the  trimming  may  be  in  itself. 
Over  decoration  will  mar  the  beauty  of  any  garment.  The  most 
attractive  gown  follows  the  line  of  the  body  and  never  contradirts 
it.  Fashion  will  at  times  dictate  excrescences  which  injure  the 
dignity  of  the  human  form — bustles,  hoop-skirts,  Grecian  bends, 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  139 

huge  sleeves,  hobble  skirts,  and  wasp  waists  come  and  go  in  a  freak- 
ish manner,  but  the  eras  of  chaste  drapery  following  the  form  are 
always  considered  to  be  times  when  beauty  and  art  triumph. 

An  excellent  conservation  method  is  for  each  woman  to  select 
the  color  for  the  general  tone  of  her  wardrobe  which  suits  her  own 
coloring,  and  keep  all  of  her  coats,  suits,  and  gowns  in  harmony 
with  it.  She  can  thus  reduce  the  number  of  her  outer  coats  to  a 
minimum,  and  waists  that  have  been  made  in  one  season  can  be 
used  with  new  suits  in  the  following  one.  Hats  can  also  conform 
to  the  same  scheme.  Those  who  have  tried  this  plan  have  found  it 
satisfactory  for  the  wearing  out  of  old  clothing  and  conserving 
new.  Blue,  black,  or  dark  brown  can  be  worn  by  many,  and  many  of 
the  varieties  of  taupe  are  becoming  to  both  old  and  young. 

Accessories  to  dress,  such  as  shoes,  gloves,  and  hats  are  very 
important  and  they  should  always  be  in  the  best  condition,  but 
should  be  non-assertive. 

In  making  a  dress,  the  warp  threads  of  the  cloth  should  run 
the  length  of  the  gown,  for  these  threads  are  stronger.  If  there  is  a 
right  or  wrong  side  to  the  cloth,  an  up  or  down  to  the  design,  or  a 
nap  to  the  material,  it  must  be  noted,  so  that  all  parts  may  be  har- 
monious in  effect  when  the  garment  is  completed. 

In  cutting  out  a  dress,  much  material  can  be  saved  if  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  pattern  are  so  carefully  fitted  on  the  cloth  that 
nothing  will  be  wasted. 

Materials  which  deteriorate  quickly  should  not  be  bought.  For 
one  who  wishes  to  have  one  gown  serve  all  occasions,  two  sets  of 
sleeves  should  be  made  for  it,  and  a  special  guimpe  or  vestee  can  be 
used  for  dressy  occasions.  Strict  economy  should  be  exercised  in 
choice  and  elaboration  of  trimmings ;  those  who  are  doing  this  are 
interested  to  find  how  little  they  are  missed.  It  is  often  wise  in 
ordering  a  suit  to  have  two  skirts  to  go  with  one  coat,  as  the  latter 
does  not  wear  out  as  quickly.  If,  however,  the  coat  can  be  worn 
with  other  clothing  in  the  following  year  this  may  be  unnecessary. 

Self-trimming  in  bands  and  pin  tucks,  eyelets,  scalloped  edges, 
simple  embroidery  and  hemstitching;  guimpes  and  vestees;  collars 
of  good  material,  and  good  narrow  laces  take  away  the  severity  of  a 
gown.  A  touch  of  some  national  embroider}',  such  as  the  brilliant 
needle  work  of  Russia  or  China  will  lend  personality  and  distinc- 


140  CLOTHING 

tion.  Trimming  that  will  soil  or  easily  tear  should  be  detachable 
that  it  may  be  put  into  good  shape  again  without  the  necessity  of 
cleaning  the  whole  garment.  White,  fresh  collars  give  a  neat, 
smart  look  to  a  gown. 

Napped  goods,  such  as  broadcloth  and  kersey,  should  be  cut  so 
that  the  nap  runs  down,  but  in  velvets  and  plush  the  nap  should 
run  up.  If  the  material  is  striped  the  main  stripe  should  be  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  gown. 

The  popular  dress  of  the  present  is  largely  a  one-piece  gown  in  a 
coat  form  with  little  fitting  at  the  waist,  and  therefore  requiring 
the  minimum  of  adjustment  in  a  ready-to-wear  garment.  On  ac- 
count of  the  simple  form,  it  is  now  possible  to  order  garments  from 
a  distant  city  or  from  mail  order  houses  that  will  be  more  satisfac- 
tory in  appearance  than  was  true  when  a  tightly  fitted  waist  and 
skirt  were  the  mode. 

Pattern  houses  are  bringing  out  paper  patterns  on  conservation 
lines.  Designs  for  skirts  or  the  one-piece  gowns  can  be  bought 
requiring  the  minimum  of  cloth,  yet  simple  in  construction  and 
attractive  in  appearance. 

The  outer  dress  of  the  present  has  few  fastenings  and  in  some 
cases  slips  over  the  head,  thus  saving  time  and  money.  These 
easily  made  and  easily  adjusted  garments  are  increasing  rapidly  in 
favor  with  the  public,  for  they  have  beauty  as  well  as  utility.  The 
skirt  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  14)  has  but  two  pieces,  one  at  the 
front  and  one  at  the  back.  It  can  be  made  in  two  lengths  of  42-inch 
material.  For  a  very  slight  person,  36-inch  goods  can  be  used. 
The  folds  in  the  waist  for  this  skirt  should  conform  with  those  in 
the  skirt,  giving  a  long  line  from  shoulder  to  hem.  An  old  shirt 
waist  suit  can  be  made  over  to  give  a  similar  effect  by  adjusting 
the  folds  in  the  waist  and  skirt  and  fastening  the  two  parts  to- 
gether (Fig.  15).  A  soft  crushed  belt  of  silk  or  a  girdle  of  cord 
should  cover  the  joining  at  the  waist.  In  general,  the  effect  is  more 
pleasing  if  the  girdle  is  raised  a  little  above  the  regular  waist  line 
or  allowed  to  bend  gently  below  it  in  the  middle  of  the  front  or  all 
around.  It  is  well  to  try  on  the  gown  before  it  is  finished  to  sec 
which  method  is  the  more  pleasing.  (Figs.  20  and  21,  p.  1  !)•">. ) 

Wlu-M  cutting  a  skirt  the  pattern  of  the  front  should  In-  l;iid  on 
double  material  that  there  may  not  be  a  seam  down  the  center  front. 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING 


141 


FIG.  15. 


Fio.  14. — A  very  simple  and  pretty  skirt.  First,  cut  two  pieces  of  cloth  the  required 
length  plus  the  width  of  the  hem.  A  yard  and  a  quarter  for  each  piece  is  the  usual  amount. 
The  material  should  be  42"  wide  unless  the  skirt  is  for  a  very  thin  person.  Second,  baste 
the  center  line  in  both  pieces  of  cloth.  Third,  lay  deep  tucks  to  form  a  panel  back  and  front. 
The  panel  may  be  seven  inches  at  the  top  and  twelve  at  the  bottom.  Tne  tuck  meets  in  the 
center  of  the  panel  at  the  top.  The  tucks  are  to  be  stitched  down  ten  inches  and  left  free 
at  the  bottom.  Fourth,  measure  down  Z1A  inches  on  center  front  line  and  cut  the  curve  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  skirt.  The  front  of  the  skirt  is  one  inch  wider  than  the  back  on  each 
side.  Fifth,  baste  the  side  seam  making  the  front  of  the  skirt  4"  wider  than  the  back  at  the 
bottom.  Sixth,  baste  skirt  on  belting.  Open  the  placket  on  left  hand  side  of  front  panel. 
Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

FIG.   15. — Simple  skirt  with  shirtwaist.      The  lines  of  the  skirt  and  waist  should  always 
be  harmonious.     Pattern  of  skirt  is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 


142  CLOTHING 

(Fashion  at  intervals,  however,  decrees  such  a  seam.)  The  cloth 
should  be  so  folded  that  it  is  only  as  wide  as  the  widest  part  of  the 
pattern,  thus,  material  can  be  saved  on  one  side  to  use  for  some 
other  purpose.  A  circular  skirt  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  make  and 
fit,  but  the  additional  material  needed  to  make  the  back  long  enough 
must  be  joined  carefully  (a  straight  edge  to  a  straight  edge)  and 
well  pressed  open  or  it  will  not  look  well.  A  very  simple  skirt,  suit- 
able for  a  cotton  petticoat,  can  be  cut  from  three  lengths  of  material 
which  is  the  same  on  both  sides,  as  in  muslins  and  some  silks.  If 
the  length  of  the  skirt,  including  the  hem,  is  one  yard,  three  yards 
of  the  material  will  be  sufficient.  One  length  can  be  used  for  the 
front  by  taking  a  gore  off  at  each  side.  The  second  piece  can  be 
folded  over  diagonally  so  that  two-thirds  at  one  end  will  meet  one- 
third  at  the  opposite  end.  This  can  be  cut  through  to  make  the 
two  side  gores.  The  third  piece  is  for  the  back.  The  bias  sides  of 
the  front  piece  are  joined  to  the  straight  edges  of  the  side  gores  and 
the  back  with  its  straight  sides  is  joined  on  each  side  to  the  bias 
on  the  side  gores.  The  joining  of  pieces  should  be  from  the  top 
down,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  draw  the  bias  out  of  shape 
when  sewing  the  seams  together. 

It  is  advisable  for  one  who  purposes  to  make  a  garment  to  test 
the  pattern  on  the  person  before  cutting  the  cloth.  It  frequently 
happens  that  minor  changes  can  be  made  that  improve  the  appear- 
ance and  serious  mistakes  are  thus  obviated. 

In  making  over  old  clothing  for  another  person,  it  will  pay  one 
who  is  not  experienced  to  study  carefully  methods  of  changing 
waists,  sleeves  or  skirts.  "  Clothing  for  Women/'  by  Laura  I.  Baldt 
(Lippincott),  gives  simple  and  helpful  information  on  dressmaking. 

It  is  seldom  attractive  to  have  a  break  in  color  at  the  waist.  If 
a  two-piece  gown  is  to  be  worn,  the  effect  is  more  pleasing  if  the 
colors  of  each  part  are  in  complete  harmony.  The  best  points  in  a 
person  should  be  brought  out  in  the  dress  and  the  poor  ones  con- 
cealed. Blue  eyes  can  be  accented  by  a  blue  dress  of  the  same 
tone.  The  beauty  of  red  hair  can  be  increased  by  the  wearing  of 
velvets  or  soft  materials  in  brown  tones  darker  than  the  hair;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  hair  can  be  made  unattractive  by  wearing  a 
gown  of  some  tones  of  blue  or  violet.  A  stout  person  should  I  urn-  M 
gown  with  long,  simple  lines  to  reduce  the  appearance  of  flesh, 


SERVICEABLE  CLOTHING  143 

dark  colors  being  better,  and  a  thin  one  can  by  the  judicious  use 
of  drapery,  the  elimination  of  long  lines,  and  the  use  of  cross  lines 
conceal  her  emaciation.  Striped  goods  running  lengthways  on  the 
latter  would  make  her  look  even  thinner.  Art  principles  are  con- 
cerned vitally  in  dress  and  should  have  consideration. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  main  reasons  for  the  movement  among  women  to  stand- 

ardize their  every  day  dress? 

2.  What  are  the  changes  which  are  suggested? 

3.  Give  the  principles  which  should  underly  the  selection  of  clothing. 

4.  What  is  being  done  to  meet  the  need? 

5.  What  part  should  art  and  color  take  in  the  improvement  of  women's 

dress? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Study  the  changing  fashions,  consider  the  relation  of  woman's  dress  to 

the  need  of  thrift  in  the  country,  and  state  the  proper  procedure  in 
your  own  case. 

2.  Consider  the  use  of  uniform  for  women  as  a  solution  of  the  dress  prob- 

lem, and  the  influence  of  personality  and  of  beauty  upon  the  problem. 

3.  Enumerate  the  various  phases  of  the  movement  for  the  development  of 

design  in  America  for  women's  dress.     How  can  women  aid  in  the 
movement  ? 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE 

Budget  Making. — Methods  of  making  household  budgets  are 
not  new,  for  they  have  been  dealt  with  in  numerous  books  and 
pamphlets,  and  some  families  are  using  them.  Definite  percent- 
ages to  be  set  aside  from  the  income  for  the  various  items,  such  a* 
food,  shelter,  clothing  and  personal  expenses,  have  become  familiar. 
Many  women  anxious  to  spend  money  wisely  are  taking  courses  of 
instruction  in  conducting  the  household  accounts  and  in  the  mak- 
ing of  a  budget.  As  yet,  however,  there  are  comparatively  few 
people  who  are  really  living  on  a  budget.  Nevertheless,  there  is  no 
other  way  that  gives  as  many  economic  suggestions  for  the  wise 
use  of  the  income.  The  main  difficulty  in  actually  planning  one 
for  use  is  the  finding  of  the  special  problems  to  be  met  by  the  par- 
ticular family  or  individual.  The  general  budget  plans  given  out 
are  suggestions  only  for  methods  of  procedure  in  any  special  case, 
and  the  first  steps  toward  regulating  the  expenses  for  any  one 
family  or  individual  must  be  to  decide  on  its  own  basis  of  spending 
according  to  its  personal  needs.  The  beginner  feels  baffled  by  the 
questions  which  arise  in  her  mind  as  to  the  best  way  to  apply  a 
representative  budget  in  her  case  and  gives  up  the  attempt  after  a 
short  trial.  Her  easiest  method  of  procedure  would  be  for  her  to 
keep  her  personal  expenditures  for  a  year  (see  "Budget  Sugges- 
tions "  below)  in  order  to  find  out  how  the  money  is  spent,  and  then 
make  her  estimates  for  the  following  year  from  the  known  expenses 
of  the  preceding  year.  With  some  facts  out  of  her  own  experience 
she  can  study  a  general  budget  with  more  intelligence  and  divide 
her  income  into  a  few  large  divisions  which  may  serve  her  for  an- 
other year.  There  is,  indeed,  no  royal  road  to  budget  making,  but 
after  a  budget  is  once  established  the  later  adjustments  are  much 
more  simple,  and  new  subdivisions  and  grouping  of  expenses  can 
be  made. 

Families  vary  greatly  in  the  emphasis  they  place  on  various 
items.  One  for  professional  reasons  lives  in  an  expensive  neigh- 

144 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          145 

borhood  in  a  large  city,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  the  income  than 
is  usual  must  go  to  shelter,  consequently,  other  items  must  be 
reduced  to  meet  it.  It  is  easier  in  this  case  to  adjust  the  difference 
over  several  heads  than  to  take  too  much  out  of  any  one.  Another 
family  lives  in  a  suburb  where  rents  are  low,  but  travel  to  and  from 
the  city  for  several  members  is  an  expense  which  makes  this  item 
disproportionate  with  its  usual  amount  in  the  budget.  The  home- 
maker  living  in  some  country  town  does  not  require  the  class  of 
clothing  that  a  professional  woman  in  a  large  city  needs ;  they  may 
have  the  same  income,  but  their  percentages  for  food,  shelter,  and 
clothing  wrill  probably  differ  to  some  extent.  Social  demands  and 
daily  occupations  are  factors  in  the  size  of  the  items.  A  man  with 
a  small  income  and  with  daughters  above  sixteen  years  of  age  who 
are  not  employed,  living  at  home  and  going  out  in  a  society  which  de- 
mands dressy  garments  will  find  the  clothing  section  of  the  budget 
running  higher  than  the  amount  usually  allowed  for  it,  unless  some 
one  is  at  the  helm  to  manage  this  problem  in  an  economic  manner. 
At  the  present  time  commodities  are  scarce,  expenses  have  risen 
rapidly,  special  savings  and  thrift  are  asked  of  all,  and  the  in- 
comes of  large  numbers  of  the  people  are  no  larger.  Conditions 
are  by  no  means  stable  and  tentative  budgets  are  alone  available  for 
every  one  is  estimating  and  experimenting.  Some  who  have  fair 
incomes  are  still  using  the  old  percentages,  but  are  reducing  the 
amount  and  kind  of  food,  household  articles,  and  clothing.  Other 
families,  have  entirely  readjusted  the  size  of  percentages  to  meet 
the  higher  costs  of  the  main  items  of  the  budget.  The  budget  given 
below  is  representative  of  the  first  group.  In  order  to  keep  ex- 
penses within  limits  the  commodities  formerly  bought  were  alto- 
gether changed  in  many  instances  and  experiments  in  equivalents 
were  constant  and  still  continue.  The  wardrobe  has  been  limited, 
out-of-style  clothing  has  been  utilized,  and  methods  of  care  and 
renovation  have  been  developed.  The  manager  of  this  budget  is  a 
self-supporting  woman  in  a  large  city,  and  her  income  is  $3300. 
At  the  beginning  of  each  year  she  adds  up  her  expenses  for  the  past 
year,  considers  her  extravagances  and  economies  and  makes  her 
estimates  for  the  following  year.  She  alters  her  percentages .  and 
amounts  slightly  as  unexpected  demands  come,  such  as  an  advance 
in  rent  or  board.  In  order  to  meet  this  she  has  to  lower  allow- 
10 


146 


CLOTHING 


anees  on  several  items.  Such  a  budget  would  need  many  changes 
to  fit  it  for  a  family,  but  as  it  stands  should  be  suggestive  to  a 
beginner  for  divisions  and  percentages  for  one  person;  and  with 
some  adjustments  it  will  have  suggestions  for  a  family. 

The  first  step  taken  by  this  particular  woman  in  her  use  of 
income  is  to  set  aside  a  portion  for  savings  and  insurance,  removing 
it  directly  from  the  budget.  In  this  case  $300  was  taken,  leaving 


VIXI'LS. 

Flo.   16. — Division  of  an  individual  annual  budget  of  $3000. 

the  remainder,  $3000,  to  be  divided  into  the  various  items  of  the 
year's  expense  items.  The  expenditures  are  given  in  round  num- 
bers and  the  percentages  without  fractions.  The  amounts  of  the 
different  parts  of  a  budget  are  seldom  exactly  the  same  from 
year  to  year,  for  unexpected  conditions  occur,  prices  vary,  and 
needs  change.  The  divisions,  as  given,  are  sufficiently  true  to  keep 
the  user  of  it  from  unnecessary  spending  in  any  direction,  and  if 
she  does  use  more  of  any  one  item  than  is  allotted  she  must  deduct 
that  much  from  another  division.  (See  Fig.  16  for  a  graphic  repre- 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE  147 

sentation  of  the  divisions  of  the  entire  budget,  and  Fig.  17  for  the 
various  parts  of  the  clothing  expenditures.) 

A  REPRESENTATIVE   INDIVIDUAL   BUDGET 

Living  expenses 

Rent   or    house   expense    ....    20%     $600 
Food      25%        750 


Operating 
House    (repairs,  light,  heat 

telephone )      8%       240 

Service  2%         60 


55%^$  1650 


Clothing  ) 

Large,  small,  miscellaneous     12%       360        V18%       $540 
Laundry,  repairs,  cleaning.     6%       180        J 

Recreation    and    higher    life 

Gifts,    charities    10%     $300         10%       $300 

Travel     4%        120           4%          120 

Personal — Doctor,    dentist, 

clubs,  entertainment   .  .  .  12%       360          12%          360 

Sundries — News  p  a  p  e  r  s,  • — /" 

writing    paper,     stamps,  Ir 

incidentals     1%         30           1%           30 

100%     $3000 

Budget  Studies.1 — When  incomes  are  low,  the  percentages  for 
shelter,  food,  and  clothing  will  require  most  of  it.  There  will  be 
little  money  to  spend  on  higher  life  and  recreation,  and  savings,  if 
made  at  all,  are  usually  taken  to  provide  burial  insurance.  At  the 
present  time,  with  prices  of  necessities  so  high,  many  are  carried 
below  the  efficiency  line,  for  there  is  no  room  to  adjust  to  new 
methods  of  buying  food  or  clothing.  Studies  have  been  made  of 
the  annual  purchase  of  clothing  under  present  conditions  which  are 
suggestive  for  minimum  expenditures  for  health  and  efficiency. 
The  increase  in  the  cost  of  living  from  July,  1914,  to  November, 
1919,  has  been  considered  by  the  National  Industrial  Conference 
Board.  The  result  of  this  investigation  is  that,  taking  the  entire 
budget,  the  rise  has  been  about  83  per  cent.  The  basis  on  which  the 
averages  were  determined  was  that  food  constituted  43  per  cent,  of 
the  budget,  rent  18  per  cent.,  clothing  13  per  cent.,  fuel  and  light  6 
per  cent.,  and  sundries  20  per  cent.  The  increases  over  1914  costs 
were  found  to  be  for  food  91  per  cent.,  for  rent  40  per  cent,  for  cloth- 

1  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers,  October,  1919. 


148 


CLOTHING 


ing  135  per  cent.,  for  fuel  and  light  48  per  cent.,  and  for  sundries 
75  per  cent.,  these  being  combined  to  determine  the  average  increase 
of  83  per  cent,  to  November,  1919.  On  clothing,  the  retail 
stores  throughout  the  country  were  asked  to  furnish  prices 
for  goods  retailing  at  a  specified  price  in  1918,  and  also  to  report 
the  changes,  for  the  same  quality  of  goods,  from  1915  to  July, 
1919.  Women's  blouses  were  found  to  have  advanced  50.5  per 


& 


FIG.   17. — Divisions  of  an  individual  clothing  budget  in  which  18  per  cent.,  or  $540,  was  used. 

cent.,  men's  overalls  had  reached  161  per  cent.,  many  yard  goods 
were  100  per  cent,  advanced.  Men's  hosiery  costing  15  cents  per 
pair  in  1914  were  at  least  25  cents,  and  those  costing  25  cents  in 
1914  had  reached  45  cents.  Knit  underwear  was  nearly  100  per 
cent,  higher,  women's  shoes  88.5  per  cent.,  and  men's  69  per 
cent.  Kid  gloves  previously  selling  at  $1  had  reached  $2.  Changes 
of  the  same  character  were  reported  in  other  standard  articles 
of  clothing. 

A  study  made  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  (see 
Chapter  VIII,  section  "  The  Working  Basis  ")  and  released  in  May, 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          149 

1919,  gives  the  income  of  $2500  for  a  family  of  five  (4.9  as  stated, 
and  representing  518  families)  as  necessary  for  "  bare  necessities  " 
and  the  "  simplest  comforts."  The  record  is  as  follows : 

Food     $640.92 

Clothing    253.68 

Rent    214.62 

Fuel  and  light    64.20 

Furniture     , 61.05 

Miscellaneous    expenses    284.25 

Simplest   comforts    991.08 

The  annual  cost  of  maintaining  a  minimum  reasonable  standard 
for  a  family  of  five  in  Lawrence,  Mass.,  is  given  by  the  National 
Industrial  Conference  Board  in  November,  1919,  as  $1385.79.  This 
is  an  increase  since  1914  of  84  per  cent.  The  amounts  were  made 
up  as  follows:  Food,  $600.60;  shelter,  $182;  clothing,  $265.61; 
fuel,  heat,  and  light,  $71.34;  sundries,  $26.24;  this  would  require 
a  steady  income  of  $26.65  per  week.  A  somewhat  more  liberal 
standard  is  given  by  the  board  as  $1658.04.  A  similar  study  at 
Fall  River,  Mass.,  places  the  minimum  and  reasonable  cost  of  living 
in  that  city  at  $1267.76,  and  the  more  liberal  one  at  $1573.90.  Thus 
conditions  differ  in  cities. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  it  is  only  a  comparatively  few 
years  since  a  comparable  income  for  such  a  family  was  estimated 
at  $800  or  thereabouts,  the  rise  in  living  costs  can  be  appreciated. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  has  considered  also  the  expen- 
ditures for  clothing  in  1917  among  a  special  group  of  six  hundred 
women  wage  earners  of  Washington,  D.  C.2  Of  this  group  82  per 
cent,  spent  less  than  $150  annually  for  dress,  93  per  cent,  spent  less 
than  $200,  and  but  6.5  per  cent,  spent  as  much  as  $200.  A  special 
study  was  made  of  fifty-three  women  out  of  the  group  of  six  hundred 
who  were  between  the  ages  of  nineteen  and  thirty-five  years,  were 
living  away  from  home,  and  were  strictly  self-supporting.  The 
wages  ranged  from  $258  to  $1096  annually,  and  the  yearly  expen- 
ditures for  clothing  were  from  $22  to  $260,  which  brought  the 
average  to  about  $125  per  annum — this  is  somewhat  higher  than 
the  minimum  standards  arrived  at  in  other  cities,  which  is  ex- 
plained by  higher  clothing  requirements  in  Washington  and  the 

•Monthly  Review  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1918,  February, 
April  and  June. 


150  CLOTHING 

increased  cost  of  commodities  since  the  other  investigations  were 
made.  In  1915  the  New  York  State  Factory  Investigation  Com- 
mission 3  stated,  "  the  matter  may  be  summed  up  by  saying  that  a 
girl  may  respectably  clothe  herself  on  between  $85  and  $90,  and 
she  can  maintain  a  fairly  good  appearance  with  about  $100."  By 
1917  this  minimum  was  not  sufficient  for  satisfactory  attire. 

The  cost  of  being  well  dressed  for  the  fifty-three  Washington 
women  showed  these  average  expenses:  Outside  clothing  (suits, 
coats,  sweaters,  dresses,  waists,  dress  skirts),  $57.58;  hats,  $11.59; 
shoes,  $14.20;  gloves,  $3.32;  stockings,  $5.53;  underwear,  $7.18; 
and  miscellaneous,  $14.27.  The  sort  of  garments  purchased  was 
approximately  as  follows :  Suits  or  coats  were  bought  in  alternate 
years  and  cost  from  $25  to  $30;  shirtwaists,  $6  to  $15;  one-piece 
dress,  $15;  wool  skirts,  $5.  to  $10;  summer  skirts,  $3  to  $5;  party 
dress  (worn  for  two  years),  $25;  shoes,  $12  to  $17;  stockings,  $3 
to  $7;  corsets,  $2  to  $5 ;  gloves,  $2.50  to  $5 ;  underwear,  $5-  to  $10 ; 
and  miscellaneous,  $10,  approximately.  Outside  clothing  cost  from 
$70  to  $75,  or  a  little  more  than  half  of  the  $125,  and  the  other 
articles  about  $50  or  $60. 

The  following  is  one  of  the  budgets,  the  owner  of  which  did  not 
rely  on  the  ready-to-wear  or  custom  trade,  but  made  practically  all 
of  her  own  clothes,  trimmed  her  own  hats,  and  did  her  own  mend- 
ing. The  amounts  spent  were  as  follows : 

Material  for  2  dresses  ( 1  at  $4  and  1  at  $6) $10.00 

Material  for  8  shirtwaists   7.00 

Material   for  2  dress   skirta    1.60 

One    sweater     1 5.00 

Three  hats  ( 1  at  10  cents,  1  at  08  cents,  1  at  $7)  .  .  8.08 

Five  pairs  of  shoes  ( 1  at  $8,  2  at  $3.50,  1  at  $5 )  .  .  20.00 

Eight  aprons  at  25  cents   2.00 

Four  pairs  of  gloves    4.25 

Fifteen  pairs  of  stockings  ($5  worth  of  gifts) 12.28 

Two   corsets    7.00 

Underwear    (including  gift  of  material  of  $2.25)  ..  5.25 

Miscellaneous     4.54 

Total  for  clothe*    $87.00 

On  account  of  wide  variations  of  taste,  of  knowledge  of  values 
in  material,  of  opportunities  to  buy  advantageously,  of  ability  to 

'Fourth  Report  of  N.  Y.  State  Factory  Investigating  Commission, 
1915,  vol.  4. 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          151 

sew,  repair,  and  make  garments,  and  good  habits  in  wearing  and 
in  caring  for  clothes,  it  was  felt  that  accurate  minimum  standards 
in  the  amount  of  money  that  should  be  spent  for  clothing  per 
annum  could  not  be  set  up. 

The  occupation  figures  largely  in  its  demands  upon  the  wage 
earner.  The  factory  worker  has  less  need  to  appear  well  dressed 
than  the  sales  girl.  The  laundry  worker,  the  clerk,  and  the  stenog- 
rapher all  have  standards  of  dress  set  for  them  that  affect  the 
amount  they  must  spend  annually.  Success  in  life  as  well  as  self- 
respect  require  women  in  some  occupations  to  spend  a  goodly 
amount  of  their  salary  for  clothing.  An  applicant  who  is  not  well 
dressed  when  applying  for  a  position  is  apt  to  be  refused.  This 
fact  has  its  influence  on  the  amount  of  money  spent  by  workers. 

In  general,  all  wage-earning  women  consider  a  suit  necessary 
and  at  present  they  want  one  worth  buying  that  will  last  for  con- 
stant wear  for  two  years.  It  will  cost  $25  as  a  minimum,  and,  at 
the  present  time,  is  not  very  satisfactory  at  that  figure.  The  higher 
priced  suit,  if  simple  in  design,  is  apt  to  wear  longer,  for  a  better 
class  cloth  is  used  in  it.  The  latter  is  worth  buying  even  though 
money  must  be  saved  up  for  it  in  advance.  Looking  ahead  is  diffi- 
cult but  not  impossible.  It  is  wiser  to  buy  outright  than  on  the 
instalment  plan.  It  is  advisable  to  buy  the  suit  one  year  and  the 
outer  coat  or  wrap  the  next  year.  Coats  will  usually  wear  longer 
than  skirts,  for  they  are  not  used  so  much.  Some  workers  prefer 
to  buy  a  fairly  light  weight  suit  for  the  entire  year  and  wear  a 
sweater  under  it  if  the  weather  is  cold  and  another  coat  over  in  the 
extreme  winter  weather.  The  blouse  or  shirtwaist  is  still  in  de- 
mand, for  the  one-piece  suit  has  not  completely  superseded  the 
shirtwaist  and  skirt. 

The  Clothing  Division  of  a  Budget. — The  percentage  of  the 
income  to  be  used  for  clothing  runs  on  an  average  from  12  to  20 
per  cent.  See  Fig.  18  for  a  suggestive  chart  of  the  clothing  divi- 
sions where  about  12  per  cent,  (one-eighth  of  the  entire  income) 
was  used,  giving  $300  for  clothing  of  which  one-half  was  used  for 
outer  garments;  and  Fig.  17  for  a  chart  showing  where  18  per 
cent.,  or  less  than  one-fifth  ($540)  of  the  income,  was  used  for 
clothing.  In  this  latter  case  less  than  one-half  was  used  for  new 
outergarments,  but  much  was  spent  on  renovation  and  cleaning  of 


152 


CLOTHING 


those  in  use.  A  family  of  five  living  on  $3000  will  probably  spend 
20  per  cent.  ($600)  on  clothing,  but  an  individual  living  on  that 
income  can  get  along  easily  with  12  per  cent.  ($375)  and  dress 
well.  If  a  family  has  a  small  annual  budget,  the  proportion  for 
clothing  may  sometimes  run  even  higher  than  20  per  cent,  if 


HEADWEAR- GLOVES 
s^s.oo-  50.00 


UNDERWEAR- NEGLIGEES 
N IGHTGARMENTS-CORSETS 
$45.00    -     50.00 


OUTER    CLOTHING 
t  I  50.00 


•FOOTWEAR 

STOCKINGS 

S25.00.-3  5.00 


Fio.   18. — Divisions  of  an  individual  $300  clothing  budget  for  which  12  per  cent.,  ot 
one-eighth,  of  the  total  income  was  taken. 

appearing  well  dressed  seems  obligatory,  but  it  should  run  much 
smaller,  for  the  income  is  required  for  food  and  shelter  principally, 
and  other  items  must  suffer.  With  working  girls  on  low  salaries 
10  to  13  per  cent,  is  frequently  all  that  can  be  afforded  for  clothing. 
There  are  thoughtless  women  who  demand  an  unnecessarily  large 
percentage  of  the  income  for  their  own  personal  adornment.  In 
incomes  of  $1000,  with  several  children  in  the  family,  20  per 
cent,  may  have  to  be  spent  on  clothing  in  a  cold  climate,  but  food 
and  shelter  will  take  practically  all  the  W§t 

In  1911  a  clothing  budget  for  a  father,  mother,  and  three  chil- 
dren was  made  for  the  Child  Welfare  Exhibit  in  New  York  by  its 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE  153 

Clothing  Committee.  (See  Chapter  VIII,  section  "Tests/'  and 
Chapter  XI,  section  "  Care  of  Clothing  as  a  Part  of  National 
Thrift/')  To  indicate  graphically  the  best  use  of  the  money,  rep- 
resentative garments  and  articles  were  shown  in  ready-to-wear  and 
made-at-home  clothing.  It  was  found  even  in  1911  on  account  of 
the  rising  cost  of  living  that  the  lowest  income  at  that  time  which 
allowed  for  the  purchase  of  enough  clothing  for  five  people  was 
$900,  and  that  the  supply  was  only  fairly  adequate.  The  per- 
centage taken  for  clothing  was  about  12  per  cent.,  which  gave  $112 
for  the  year  for  five  people.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  a  salary  of 
$900  was  then  above  the  average,  and  that  large  numbers  of  working 
people  were  living  on  $600  or  even  less.  In  the  income  mentioned 
above,  the  father  and  mother  had  $47  for  all  their  clothing  and  the 
three  children  had  $65  between  them.  Clothing  which  could  be 
provided  under  such  an  income  for  several  ages  of  children  was 
shown.  The  amounts  spent  in  1911  were  as  follows,  but  the  garments 
could  not  be  duplicated  at  less  than  twice  these  prices  at  the  present 
time.  The  minimum  for  clothing  for  five  being,  in  1919,  $253.68, 
more  than  twice  as  much  with  no  better  results.  (See  above  (t  Bud- 
get Studies.") 

Home-made        Ready-made 

Baby    1-3     $8.65  $9.00 

Kindergarten  age,  3-6    13.69  17.46 

Primary  age,   6-8    17.16  20.61 

Boy,   10    23.28 

Girl,   8-12    21.02  19.98 

High  school  girl    31.27  35.99 

One  interesting  feature  of  the  exhibit  was  the  showing  of  the 
relative  values  of  ready-to-wear  and  home-made  garments  when  the 
income  was  so  low.  At  first,  the  ready-to-wear  clothing  appeared 
to  better  advantage.  The  cloth  chosen  for  the  home-made  articles 
was  all  tested,  the  strongest  possible  material  was  selected,  and 
decoration  was  almost  eliminated,  yet  the  garments  were  attractive. 
The  ready-to-wear  clothing  was  bought  as  near  the  price  of  the 
home-made  as  possible,  but  was  more  showily  trimmed,  as  simpler 
styles  were  hard  to  find.  After  a  time  the  clothing  which  was 
almost  exclusively  of  cotton,  as  wool  could  not  be  purchased  for  this 
price,  became  soiled  from  exposure  at  the  exhibit  and  had  to  be 
laundered.  The  ready-to-wear  clothing  would  not  stand  this  as  well 


154  CLOTHING 

as  the  home-made.  A  good  example  of  endurance  versus  style  fol- 
lowed, as  the  ready-to-wear  clothing  washed  thin  and  lost  its  color 
in  the  laundry  and  the  decoration  became  v/orn  and  shabby,  while 
the  home-made  garments  stood  the  test  well.  A  mother  who  has 
time  to  work  and  is  a  judge  of  materials  can  make  clothing  which 
will  in  general  outwear  the  ready-made  and  cost  less. 

The  Wardrobe. — There  are  differences  of  opinion  on  the  most 
economical  and  satisfactory  ways  of  obtaining  the  season's  clothing. 
In  many  families  the  women's  and  girls'  garments  are  made  prin- 
cipally at  home  by  a  visiting  dressmaker  who  comes  each  season  to 
help  with  the  remodelling  of  old  garments  and  the  making  of  new. 
Those  who  prefer  this  method  feel  that  it  is  distinctly  more  economi- 
cal than  ready-to-wear  or  custom  clothing.  It  may  be  questioned  as 
to  whether  the  results  in  attractive  garments  are  in  general  satisfac- 
tory, whether  the  time  spent  in  assisting  the  dressmaker  or  in  fin- 
ishing garments  after  her  departure  could  not  be  spent  to  better 
advantage,  <and  whether  the  effect  on  the  nerves  from  the  excessive 
strain  of  work  does  not  interfere  with  the  harmony  of  family  life. 

Ready-to-wear  clothing  is  relied  upon  by  a  large  number  of 
families,  the  purchasing  being  done  through  the  department  stores, 
the  specialty  shops,  and  mail  order  houses.  As  soon  as  such  gar- 
ments lose  their  freshness,  new  ones  are  purchased.  It  is  claimed 
that  this  method  is  no  more  expensive  and  is  more  hygienic,  for  a 
gown  that  is  long  in  service,  unless  it  is  frequently  cleaned,  is  not 
as  sanitary.  Men  and  boys  as  well  as  women  and  girls  depend 
for  almost  their  entire  wardrobes  on  the  retail  trade.  The  gar- 
ments are  up-to-date,  the  expense  is  not  as  high  as  if  they  were 
ordered  from  the  best  custom  trade,  and  the  time  of  making  them 
at  home  and  the  fatigue  of  repeated  fittings  are  saved.  In  men\s 
and  boys'  clothing  it  is  possible  to  obtain  conservative  models  made 
of  the  best  of  cloth  by  dealing  at  reliable  houses.  In  women's 
clothing,  however,  the  habit  of  rapid  changes  of  fashion  and  the 
desire  for  garments  at  low  prices  have  brought  on  the  market  numer- 
ous models  made  of  effective  materials,  but  less  enduring  than 
those  found  in  men's  suitings.  Many  business  women  consider 
ready-to-wear  garments  a  boon  in  their  busy  lives.  For  the  success 
of  these  gowns  much  depends  on  the  conformity  of  the  purchaser 
to  the  model,  as  the  clothing  comes  in  regulation  sizes  and  refitting 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          155 

the  garments  to  any  extent  is  expensive  and  apt  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

The  custom  trade  of  the  best  quality  that  can  be  afforded  is  pre- 
ferred by  another  group  of  women.  Perhaps  one  gown  of  the  highest 
class  is  ordered  each  season — quiet,  exclusive  qualities  are  selected, 
and  the  style  is  artistic.  Each  gown  is  expected  to  last  for  several 
years,  and  if  adjustment  is  necessary,  it  is  taken  back  to  the  tailor  or 
dressmaker  who  made  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  if  a  dress  is 
really  beautiful  and  becoming,  a  woman  is  not  anxious  to  throw  it 
aside  and  is  sorry  when  it  is  beyond  wear.  The  women  who  use 
this  method  state  that  they  can  thus  present  a  good  appearance  at 
no  more  cost  than  it  would  take  to  have  a  number  of  ready-to-wear 
suits,  and  they  can  have  business  and  dressy  garments  of  greater 
dignity  than  the  passing  fashions.  There  are  many  who  use  to 
advantage  all  three  of  the  methods.  Much  can  be  said  in  favor  of 
ready-to-wear  garments,  but  an  increasing  number  of  women  wish 
better  materials  and  more  artistic  and  conservative  styles  than  are 
usually  found  in  them. 

A  pre-war  study  of  the  comparative  prices  of  made-at-home, 
ready-to-wear,  and  custom  trade  brought  the  following  results: 
The  dressmaker  was  moderate  in  price ;  the  quality  of  cloth  in  the 
first  two  methods  was  probably  better  than  in  the  third.  These  pre- 
war prices  would  be  increased  at  the  present  time,  but  the  relation  be- 
tween the  three  methods  would  be  approximately  the  same. 

Made  Dress-  Ready 

at-home  maker  to-wear 

1.  Simple  service  gown   $20.00  $35.00  $30.00 

2.  Tweed   coat .. pressed   at  the  tailor's..    24.00  45.00  37.50 

3.  Silk,  dressy  gown 37.00  60.00  50.00 

4.  Black  and* white  check  dress  of  wool..    16.25  30.90  25.00 

During  the  war,  the  majority  of  women  found  they  could  get 
along  with  fewer  clothes.  They  ceased  to  wear  the  gayer  varieties 
of  garments,  consequently  chiffon  blouses,  lacy  camisoles,  showy 
neckwear,  and  light  evening  wraps  were  not  considered  so  essen- 
tial as  before.  For  most  occasions  a  service  dress,  a  tailored  suit, 
and  a  simple  silk  one-piece  gown  were  found  to  be  sufficient.  Many 
women  wore  uniforms.  Since  that  time  a  large  number  who  have 
tasted  the  freedom  of  simpler  dress  have  been  asking  why  it  is  essen- 
tial to  return  to  the  old  ways  which  were  unsatisfactory  and  have 


156  CLOTHING 

been  proved  to  be  unnecessary.  A  movement  toward  the  read- 
justment of  clothing  ideals  has  been  launched  and  is  gathering 
strength.  (See  Chapter  IX,  section  "Conditions  in  Women's 
Dress,"  and  Chapter  XIII,  section  "  Sensible  Standards  of  Dress.") 
If  a  woman  has  but  one  gown  which  she  wears  all  the  time,  it 
will  not  last  as  long  as  if  she  uses  another — even  an  old  gown — in 
alternation.  The  length  of  service  of  both  gowns  will  be  greatly 
increased  by  giving  each  intervals  of  rest.  A  good  cloth  suit  with 
care  should  last  several  years,  if  not  worn  every  day.  Each  woman 
should  cut  her  wardrobe  to  the  minimum,  but  have  sufficient  changes 
to  keep  all  garments  in  good  condition.  She  will  probably  need  to 
have  most  of  the  outer  garments  mentioned  below,  but  many  of 
them  will  be  already  in  the  wardrobe.  The  purchase  of  garments 
should  be  so  planned  that  only  a  few  need  be  bought  in  any  one 
year.  For  instance,  a  coat  can  be  purchased  one  year,  a  suit  the 
next  year,  and  furs  once  in  several  years. 

WARDROBE  NEEDS 

I.  Coat» — 1  light  weight  coat — a  suit  coat  can  serve  for  this  purpose. 

1  heavy  winter  coat  or  wrap ;  this  should  last  three  years  or  more. 
1  waterproof  or  storm  coat;  this  should  last  three  or  four  years, 

and  an  old  lon#  coat  can  serve  for  the  purpose. 
Sweater — 1   in  three  to  five  years  is  sufficient. 

II.  Gowns — 1  tailor-made  suit  or  a  one-piece  gown — three  years. 

1  service  gown — two  years. 

1  dressy  gown.     An   inexpensive  one  each  year  or   a  good   one 

every  other  year, 

A  slip  with  one  or  two  tunics  will  make  several  changes,  and 
serve  both  winter  and  summer.  (See  Chapter  IX,  section 
Every  Day  Clothing.) 

3  cotton  one-piece  gowns  or  shirtwaist  suits — two  years. 
Skirts — 1  wool  serge  skirt — to  last  several  years. 

2  cotton   skirts — 2   years. 

III.  Blouses — 2  substantial  ones)  for  constant  use  with  the  suit  or  skirt. 

(One  or  two  will  be  needed  each  year.) 
1  dressy  blouse — 2  years. 

3  cotton  blouses  for  summer — 2  each  year. 

IV.  Negligee  or  Wrapper — 1  should  last  for  a  number  of  years. 
\  .  1 1  at  8 — 1  summer  hat 

1  winter  hat 

— by   thoughtful    selection    and    care   one   hat    only 

need  be  bought  each  yt-iir. 

VI.  Underwear — Knitted  and  muslin;  shoes;  stockings;  gloves;  corsets; 
petticoats  and  miscellaneous  articles  are  purchased  yearly, 
but  the  entire  stock  does  not  have  to  be  renewed. 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE  157 

Those  who  have  small  incomes  are  feeling  especially  the  pinch 
of  high  prices  in  clothing.  For  them  wool  is  too  high  to  purchase 
and  cotton,  as  high  as  it  is,  must  be  used.  Cotton  for  service 
gowns  would  better  be  of  a  color  that  will  wash  well.  Plain  weaving 
soils  more  quickly  than  twill,  but  launders  more  readily.  The 
shepherd's  plaids,  the  grayish,  serge'-like  materials  and  flannels 
launder  better  than  the  bright  or  light  colored  cotton  cloths.  The 
cotton  pile  goods,  such  as  plush,  velveteen,  and  corduroy,  if  inter- 
lined with  several  layers  of  old  woolen  material,  are  warm  for  a 
winter  coat.  The  better  qualities  are  more  enduring  and  justify 
the  added  price.  A  well-chosen  corduroy  suit  makes  a  satisfactory 
garment.  Waistcoats  can  be  made  from  pieces  of  old  kid  gloves  or 
soft  leather.  Consumers  living  near  textile  mills  can  sometimes 
buy  mill  ends  (pieces  of  cloth  left  over  or  defective)  and  make  gar- 
ments from  them.  Samples  of  cloth  (swatches)  can  also  be  bought 
and  put  together  for  linings  at  a  lower  price  than  materials  by  the 
yard  would  sell  at  the  stores.  The  self-service  stores  and  bargain 
basements  offer  cheaper  articles  than  can  be  bought  elsewhere,  for 
the  overhead  expenses  are  lower.  Seconds  (garments  with  some 
flaw)  can  be  purchased  at  considerably  reduced  prices.  The  devel- 
opment of  greater  intelligence  in  buying  would  help  many  families 
to  purchase  to  better  advantage.  By  looking  ahead,  by  careful 
planning,  and  by  buying  out  of  season,  good  garments  in  conserva- 
tive styles  can  be  purchased  which  will  last  for  years,  and  then  can 
be  made  over  for  a  younger  person,  where  poorer  materials  or  ex- 
treme fashions  would  soon  be  gone.  For  the  younger  children  dark 
rompers  and  overalls  can  be  made  at  home  and  thus  save  their  other 
clothing.  Coverall  aprons  should  be  used  by  girls  and  older  women 
in  housework.  Dealing  with  reliable  firms  when  their  goods  are 
reduced  is  better  than  relying  upon  unknown  dealers.  Buying  cloth- 
ing on  instalment  is  an  extravagance  in  the  end,  and  can  be  avoided 
by  forethought. 

Clothing  for  Various  Ages. — For  the  infant  the  main  thing 
for  the  mother  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  amply  large,  simple,  un- 
trimmed,  unstarched  garments  are  the  only  suitable  ones,  and  the 
baby  must  be  kept  warm  but  not  too  warm.  The  infant  require- 
ments are  as  follows :  Bands  of  wool  and  silk  and  wool  and  cotton 
cut  on  the  bias,  shirts  of  wool  and  cotton  or  wool  and  silk  for 


158  CLOTHING 

winter  (all  wool  is  too  heating  and  less  hygienic),  and  porous  cotton 
shirts  for  summer,  petticoats  of  light-weight  part-wool  flannel, 
diapers  of  soft  absorbent  material,  a  protective  pad  of  quilted  cot- 
ton (better  than  a  rubber  diaper)  (see  Chapter  VII,  section 
"Summing  Up  Efficient  Clothing"),  a  few  dresses  or  slips  of 
strong,  fine,  soft  cotton,  a  couple  of  knitted  sacks,  and  a  simply 
made,  light-weight  cloak  of  thick,  soft,  white  wool  or  of  some 
fabric  lined  with  wool  batting*.  On  account  of  the  expense  of  wool, 
an  exterior  of  silk  in  habutai  or  pongee,  of  wool  challie  or  of  cordu- 
roy can  have  an  interlining  of  several  layers  of  fleecy  cotton  and  be 
warm.  Stockings  should  be  amply  large ;  silk  and  wool  ones  or  cot- 
ton and  wool  are  good.  The  shoes  should  be  of  some  soft  material, 
amply  large  and  the  shape  of  the  foot.  (See  Chapter  VI,  section 
"  Shoes.")  Night  wrappers  of  flannelette  or  stockinette  should  tie 
at  the  bottom  to  protect  the  feet,  and  a  slipover  of  soft,  thin  wool 
or  flannelette  should  open  down  the  front  to  be  worn  over  the  dress 
on  a  cold  day.  The  shirt  and  band  should  always  be  changed  to 
another  at  night.  In  making  the  sleeves  of  the  baby's  slips,  it  is 
well  to  put  a  tuck  at  the  wrist  through  which  a  ribbon  can  be 
slipped.  (When  the  sleeve  is  on  a  band,  it  soon  becomes  too  tight 
for  the  growing  arm  and  has  to  be  altered.)  By  loosening  the 
ribbon  or  letting  out  the  tuck,  the  sleeve  can  be  quickly  adjusted. 
If  ready-to-wear  clothing  is  purchased  it  should  be  selected  for 
simplicity,  endurance,  easy  laundering,  and  comfort. 

Undressed  batiste,  nainsook,  longcloth,  and  cambric  are  satis- 
factory for  the  baby's  dresses.  They  should  be  made  to  slip  on 
easily,  should  have  little  trimming;  a  narrow  lace  edge  or  a  few 
spots  of  hand  embroidery  or  hemstitching  at  the  neck  or  sleeves 
being  sufficient.  For  further  information  on  infants'  clothing  con- 
sult three  excellent  pamphlets  by  Mrs.  Max  West,  "  Prenatal  Care," 
"  Infant  Care,"  and  "  Child  Care,"  issued  by  the  Children's  Bureau 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  in  Washington. 

Little  children  should  be  dressed  in  material  that  is  chosen  for 
endurance  and  fast  colors.  Cotton  is  usually  preferred  to  wool,  as 
it  can  be  washed  more  frequently.  In  general,  yarn-dyed  materials, 
such  as  ginghams,  chambrays,  Devonshire,  kindergarten,  and  endur- 
ance cloths,  and  some  cotton  crepes  give  greater  satisfaction  than 
printed  calicoes,  lawns,  and  percales,  unless  the  latter  are  well 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          159 

woven  and  are  printed  in  fast  colors.  A  child  is  apt  to  get  spots 
on  its  clothing  and  a  fabric  that  can  be  easily  and  quickly  rubbed 
with  soap  and  water  is  better  than  those  which  do  not  stand  such 
emergency  treatment.  Many  prefer  to  dress  growing  children  in 
white  cotton  most  of  the  time.  Indian  head,  pique,  poplin,  long- 
cloth,  soft  and  unbleached,  and  other  muslins  are  satisfactory  and 
enduring  for  this  purpose  and  can  be  quickly  washed.  Wool  does 
not  wash  so  easily  as  cotton,  and  for  continual  wear  for  a  child  it  is 
not  so  practical,  but  it  is  excellent  for  an  outer  coat  or  for  a  gown 
to  be  worn  on  special  occasions.  The  serges  in  all-wool  and  of  firm 
weave  wash  well.  In  making  or  buying  a  child's  dress  the  mother 
should  consider  the  amount  of  time  it  will  take  in  the  laundry. 
Plain  weaves  wash  more  quickly  than  fancy  ones,  but  a  twill  keeps 
clean  longer  than  the  plain.  Light-weight  goods  are  easier  to  wash 
satisfactorily  than  heavy  ones,  such  as  khaki,  galatea,  and  jean. 
Fancy  trimmings  take  time  for  their  care  and  soon  tear.  It  is  not 
only  cheaper,  but  is  apt  to  be  more  satisfactory  to  launder  chil- 
dren's clothing  at  home.  The  commercial  laundry  frequently  uses 
soaps  which  contain  too  much  alkali.  The  use  of  white  soaps  and 
careful  methods  of  washing  garments  can  be  insisted  upon  at  home. 
If  a  commercial  laundry  must  be  used,  it  should  be  selected  carefully. 
Charges  are  frequently  higher  in  a  laundry  which  uses  the  best 
methods,  but  clothing  will  wear  longer  and  offset  the  added  expense. 
If  the  washing  is  to  be  done  in  the  small  room  of  a  tenement  in  a 
large  city,  the  mother  should  be  very  careful  to  know  that  the  con- 
ditions are  good.  In  general,  the  steam  laundry  sterilizes  clothing 
more  perfectly  than  the  small  home  laundry  in  the  city  where  grass 
and  sunshine  are  missing.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section  "  Laundry.") 
Light-colored  cottons  are  apt  to  fade  in  the  wash  unless  great  care 
is  taken.  Some  cotton  materials  shrink  badly  in  water,  and  should 
be  shrunk  before  making  or  made  large  enough  to  allow  for  the 
changes  in  length  and  width  which  will  occur.  Seersucker  and 
crepe  have  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  ironing  after  washing 
and  thus  save  time.  Mothers  are  using  these  to  an  increasing  ex- 
tent. They  are  warmer  than  are  the  smoother  cottons,  such  as  long- 
cloth,  nainsook,  and  batiste.  Loosely  woven  materials  wash  easier 
than  those  that  are  solid  and  tightly  woven.  The  minimum  cost  of 
clothing  for  a  child  of  three  was  in  the  past  considered  to  be  from 


160  CLOTHING 

$10  to  $12.  With  the  present  high  cost  of  materials  and  labor  tho 
minimum  would  probably  be  100  per  cent,  higher.  A  child's 
romper  takes  l1/^  yards  of  36-inch  material;  these  were  made  in 
the  past  of  cotton  goods  of  about  ten  cents  a  yard,  but  now  the  same 
kind  of  material  is  from  25  to  30  cents  a  yard.  A  dress  with 
bloomers  takes  3  yards.  (Bloomers  to  match  dresses  save  making 
white  petticoats.)  When.  25-cent  gingham  was  used  the  cost  was 
not  great,  but  now  such  gingham  runs  from  39  to  50  cents  a  yard. 
For  dressy  occasions  a  small  amount  of  smocking,  cross-stitching, 
feather  stitching,  and  hemstitching  will  lend  attraction  and  dis- 
tinction to  a  simple  cotton  dress.  In  one  family,  a  boy  of  eight  and 
a  girl  of  six  were  so  dressed  that  the  boy's  clothing  was  used  by  the 
girl  the  second  year.  The  mother  bought  strong  cotton  material 
for  the  boy's  suits  and  made  them  herself  in  a  sailor  or  Russian 
blouse  style.  The  boy's  sailor  suits,  kilt  and  blouse,  were  worn  by 
the  girl  with  the  addition  of  bloomers  to  take  the  place  of  a  petti- 
coat. Winter  coats  were  bought  for  the  boy  with  the  idea  that  they 
should  be  worn  by  the  girl  the  following  year.  Sailor  hats  for  the 
boy  readily  passed  to  the  girl.  There  were  some  garments  made 
especially  for  her,  but  they  were  box-plaited  with  a  deep  hem  and 
could  then  be  adjusted  the  following  year  for  her  increased  size. 
All  underclothing  was  made  with  tucks  and  bands  to  be  let  out. 
The  market  supplies  such  clothing  if  the  mother  cannot  attempt 
the  work  at  home,  but  the  price  will  be  a  little  higher  or  the  mate- 
rial not  quite  so  good.  The  boy's  clothing  cost  $65  and  the  girl's 
$50  per  year,  but  the  prices  for  cloth  were  then  lower  than  now. 
Children  of  school  age  require  more  money  to  be  spent  on  their 
clothing  than  the  younger  ones.  The  minimum  cost,  even  if  every- 
thing is  made  at  home,  will  be  probably  $20  or  $30  per  annum, 
and  twice  as  much  can  be  wisely  spent.  Making  clothing  at  lmm< 
not  only  somewhat  reduces  the  price,  but  a  better  and  more  endur- 
ing class  of  material  can  be  chosen.  The  ready-to-wear  garment  as 
generally  found  is  too  elaborate  in  design  and  less  enduring,  but  a 
little  insistence  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  consumers  would 
bring  to  the  market  simply  made  clothing  of  the  best  material. 
This  is  worth  doing,  for  the  mother  whose  time  is  occupied  with 
more  important  matters  could  thus  rely  entirely  on  ready-to- wear 
clothing  which,  while  costing  somewhat  more,  would  have  good 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          161 

wearing  quality.  The  materials  mentioned  above  with  more  em- 
phasis on  wool  are  also  *  satisfactory  for  children  of  school  age. 
Instead  of  buying  new  cloth  it  is  possible  to  cut  down  clothing  of 
the  older  members  of  the  family.  For  girls  between  eleven  and 
fourteen  simple  one-piece  dresses,  sailor  suits,  Russian  blouses,  and 
middy  jackets  made  of  wool  or  cotton  are  attractive,  easily  made 
and  taken  care  of,  if  substantial  fabrics  are  selected.  Absolute 
freedom  should  be  allowed  the  body  to  develop;  underwear  which 
has  become  too  small,  stiff  heavy  underwaists,  garters  drawing 
down  or  tight  around  the  leg  are  not  good  for  the  health  (see 
Chapter  VII,  section  "Keep  the  Body  Unhampered  and  Comfort- 
able"), and  shoes  should  be  of  correct  shape  for  the  feet.  (See 
Chapter  VI,  section  "  Shoes." )  Growing  girls  should  be  dressed 
hygienically,  with  the  uitmost  simplicity,  and  in  garments  with 
attractive  lines.  As  they  wear  out  clothing  quickly  a  few  gowns  at 
a  time  wrorn  constantly  is  wise.  With  the  younger  girls  bloomers 
should  be  made  to  match  dresses,  or  dark  ones  can  be  worn  and  thus 
save  many  white  petticoats.  A  good  beaver  or  felt  hat  for  winter 
is  a  wise  investment  for  it  can  be  reblocked  the  following  year. 

High  school  girls  should  not  dress  as  if  they  were  in  society. 
The  Georgette  waist,  the  silk  stocking,  the  pointed-toed  and  high- 
heeled  shoe  with  the  hair  put  up  in  the  latest  fashion  have  been 
more  common  than  appropriate.  Commencement  has  been  a  time 
of  extravagance  in  giving  the  young  graduate  unnecessarily  costly 
garments.  This  has  been  especially  hard  for  poor  parents  who  have 
struggled  to  give  their  children  as  good  clothing  as  the  rich  would 
have.  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  makes  a 
strong  plea  for  such  wastes  to  cease,  and  many  wise  mothers  and 
schools  have  acceded.  Courses  of  sewing  and  dressmaking  in  the 
schools  are  preparing  girls  to  do  excellent  work,  which  is  admirable, 
but  if  the  pupils  make  elaborate  cotton,  wool,  silk,  velvet,  or  lace 
gowns  for  their  personal  use,  it  increases  their  inclination  to  wear 
extravagant  clothing  not  only  for  school  service,  but  later  to  take 
time  from  other  things  to  make  such  finery  at  home.  If  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  school  to  take  orders  for  costly  clothing  on  whicfy 
experience  is  needed,  there  should  be  at  least  a  strong  accompany- 
ing effort  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  to  impress  upon  the  students 
who  are  making  the  gowns  the  need  for  the  wise  and  economical  use 
11 


162  CLOTHING 

of  material,  the  inappropriateness  of  perishable  garments  for  school 
service,  the  relation  of  clothing  to  the  family  income,  the  need  for 
every  one  to  use  time  judiciously,  and  the  significance  of  the  Thrift 
Movement.  The  tendency  toward  spending  an  undue  length  of 
time  in  making  hand-work  on  garments  is  contrary  to  thrift.  Even 
if  a  girl  can  make  fine  lingerie  for  herself  and  therefore  does  not 
have  to  buy  it,  it  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  she  must  use  time  to 
better  advantage.  A  point  should  be  made  of  fostering  simple 
dressing  in  the  schools.  School  girls  are  full  of  enthusiasm  for 
patriotic  service  and  have  been  found  willing  to  sacrifice  man;y 
things  for  the  good  of  the  country.  A  campaign  for  simple,  endur- 
ing school  clothing,  the  elimination  of  pressure  and  weight  about 
the  body,  correct  shoes,  and  stronger  stockings,  if  started  correctly 
among  the  girls  themselves,  would  result  in  overcoming  the  present 
inappropriate  style  of  dressing,  frequently  immodest  and  unhealth- 
ful,  and  would  relieve  families  of  unnecessary  expenses.  One  great 
step  toward  it  would  be  for  all  the  teachers  to  cease  to  wear  left- 
over dressy  clothing  during  school  hours,  and  set  the  fashion  for 
strong,  simple  garments  on  good  lines. 

Working  girls,  college  girls,  and  business  women  need  also  to 
select  appropriate  styles  of  garments  for  their  work.  Some  have 
been  wearing  uniforms  required  by  the  national  service  in  which 
they  are  engaged.  In  many  department  stores  a  simple  style  of 
dress  is  required,  which  makes  the  effect  of  the  sales  force  har- 
monious and  dignified.  The  thousands  of  working  girls  who  are 
not  under  such  regulations  should  now  standardize  their  own  work- 
ing dress  into  some  comfortable,  enduring  style  which  will  not 
impede  the  activity  of  arms,  body,  or  feet.  Sleeves  that  can  1>«- 
rolled  up,  a  well-fitted  loose  corset  or  girdle,  a  collar  that  is  not 
!<><>  tight,  and  shoes  in  which  one  can  stand  without  fatigue  are 
needed.  High-heeled  shoes  and  tight  dresses  have  been  responsible 
for  many  accidents.  In  the  factory  or  workroom  the  colors  should 
be  those  that  will  not  easily  soil.  White,  simple  cotton  gowns,  thick 
enough  to  need  little  clothing  underneath,  are  provided  for  their 
employees  by  progressive  laundries.  The  overall  is  necessary  in 
the  machine  shop.  Clerical  or  secretarial  work  requires  neat  tailored 
suits  in  simple  lines.  College  girls  have  begun  to  wear  appro- 
priate clothing  for  the  varieties  of  service  in  which  they  are  engaged 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE  163 

— the  overall  for  land  work,  the  simple,  strong  suit  for  motor  ser- 
vice, and  the  domestic  science  laboratory  dress  are  familiar. 

If  mothers  for  their  children  and  working,  business,  and  college 
women  for  themselves  would  take  this  matter  seriously,  a  good  work 
would  be  accomplished.  The  homes  would  feel  an  interest  and 
could  simplify  and  reduce  the  clothing  expenses,  the  textile  factory 
would  be  able  to  make  large  amounts  of  strong,  staple  materials  in 
place  of  small  orders  for  passing  fancies  in  cloth,  which  would 
simplify  the  difficulties  before  them.  The  thrift  problems  of  dress 
are  receiving  consideration  by  women's  clubs  and  other  groups,  and 
the  time  is  ripe  for  a  concerted  movement  toward  a  more  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  woman's  service  dress.  If  the  daily  work  dress 
were  simplified  the  budget  of  clothing  would  have  fewer  problems. 

Budget  Suggestions. — The  following  suggestions  are  the  result 
of  a  study  of  many  personal  budgets  in  use  from  1914  to  1920. 
The  prices  of  articles  of  clothing  were  higher  than  they  would  be  in 
normal  times.  The  budgets  show  the  effort  to  meet  the  conditions 
incident  to  war  and  reconstruction,  and  as  those  using  them  could 
spend  no  more  money  on  clothing  than  they  had  in  the  past,  much 
elimination  of  non-essentials  was  necessary.  They  are  individual 
rather  than  family  budgets,  and  only  cover  smaller  incomes.  In 
consulting  them  for  suggestions  for  a  family  budget,  data  should 
be  taken  as  it  seems  to  cover  needs  in  mind.  When  times  are  again 
normal  prices  can  be  adjusted  and  thus  the  clothing  plans  will  still 
hold  for  conservative  wardrobes. 

On  the  lower  levels  of  income  the  obtaining  of  adequate  clothing 
is  difficult  and  one  who  has  been  trained  to  a  knowledge  of  values  in 
textiles  and  to  intelligent  selection  has  a  great  advantage.  The 
clothing  cannot  be  ideal,  however,  in  such  cases.  The  following 
budget  of  clothing  is  from  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  mentioned 
above.  It  was  used  by  a  mangle  hand  in  a  laundry  earning  $5  per 
week,  and  shows  what  the  girl  could  do  with  so  inadequate  a  wage, 
which  is  below  the  health  line.  Her  total  annual  wages  were  $188 
and  $45  of  this  was  spent  for  clothing.  She  lived  with  her  parents, 
had  lost  her  husband,  and  had  a  young  child.  The  likelihood  of 
slack  times  in  many  occupations  makes  a  low  salary  a  tragedy. 
This  girl  had  many  of  them,  but  if  she  had  had  work  the  whole 
year,  the  wage  would  have  netted 


164  CLOTHING 

CLOTHING  EXPENDITURES  ON  A  $5  PER  WEEK  INCOME4 

One  suit  (this  is  being  paid  for  at  $1.00  per  week)  ....  25.00 

Two  shirtwaists  at  50  cents 1.00 

One  hat 1.98 

Two  pairs  of  shoes   8.00 

Twelve  pairs  of  stockings  at  25  cents 3.00 

Underwear    3.00 

Miscellaneous    3.02 

Total    $45,00 

Girls  living  on  low  wages  buy  much  of  their  outer  clothing  on 
the  instalment  plan  and  their  accessories  from  push  carts  and  bar- 
gain sales.  In  discussing  with  working  girls  their  method  of  meet- 
ing the  clothing  situation,  it  is  clear  that  they  try  to  do  the  best 
they  can,  but  are  untaught  in  the  most  intelligent  way  to  use  their 
money.  Community  service  plans  could  help  such  workers  by 
demonstrations,  exhibits,  and  advice  on  clothing  selection  and  pur- 
chase. (See  Chapter  XIII,  section  "A  Clothing  Information 
Bureau.")  At  present,  if  the  annual  amount  for  clothing  is  below 
$125,  it  takes  much  planning  to  appear  well  dressed,  especially  if 
there  is  little  time  to  make  or  repair  clothing  at  home.  When  the 
wage  is  small,  shelter,  food,  and  clothing  are  the  main  items.  A 
Washington  girl  making  $350  annually,  spent  $200  for  food  and 
shelter,  leaving  $150  for  all  other  expenses.  If  she  had  to  pay  car- 
fare daily  to  and  from  her  business,  she  would  indeed  be  handi- 
capped in  saving  enough  for  clothing  and  any  recreation.  On  such 
a  salary,  if  the  occupation  required  her  to  be  well  dressed  and  to 
pay  carfare  also,  she  would  have  little  left  for  decent  shelter  and 
food,  and  recreation  and  savings  would  be  cut  out. 

If  every  one  who  has  not  yet  begun  to  live  on  a  budget  would 
keep  all  income  disbursements  for  a  year,  it  would  help  toward  esti- 
mating expenses  and  planning  a  budget  for  the  following  year.  The 
kind  and  amount  of  calls  on  the  salary  would  then  be  realized,  and 
division  into  various  items  could  be  made  more  readily.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  simple  tabulation  which  suggests  a  method  of  keeping 
the  accounts — the  headings  can  be  changed  as  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual requires.  The  name  of  the  purchased  article  should  be  put 
down  under  "Name  of  Purchase/'  and  the  amount  spent  up<ui  it 

'Monthly  Review  of  Labor,  April,  1918,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE 


165 


ft 


3  S3  3 

p. 


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If 

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166  CLOTHING 

under  its  appropriate  column.  At  the  end  of  each  month  the 
columns  should  be  totaled,  and  a  new  account  started  for  the  next 
month.  Every  year  all  items  should  be  counted  up  to  note  the 
amount  spent  under  each  head,  and  the  expenses  for  the  following 
year  should  be  estimated  from  this  basis.  If  any  one  division  has 
been  too  high  for  its  rational  place  in  the  budget,  the  expenditures 
during  the  following  year  for  this  item  must  be  lowered.  It  is 
well  to  keep  in  the  pocketbook  a  slip  of  paper  or  memorandum  on 
which  constantly  recurring,  daily,  small  expenses  can  be  kept  dur- 
ing a  month  and  they  can  be  added  at  intervals  to  the  disbursement 
sheet.  It  is  not  necessary  for  a  very  busy  person  to  feel  obliged  to 
keep  her  account  balanced  to  the  last  penny  and  spend  valuable 
time  trying  to  remember  a  carfare,  a  stamp,  or  a  newspaper.  What 
is  needed  is  to  get  the  interrelation  between  the  items  and  find  out 
where  the  wastes  are.  The  item  "  Laundry "  may  be  included 
under  "  Clothing  "  or  "  Personal/'  as  the  individual  prefers.  This 
form  above  can  be  used  either  as  a  daily  record  or  a  monthly  sum- 
mary page  to  which  totals  can  be  transferred  from  a  daily  memo- 
randum of  receipts  and  expenses. 

The  incomes  of  many  teachers  and  business  women  will  allow 
them  to  spend  for  clothing  from  $150  to  $350  per  annum,  which 
will  be  about  12  per  cent.,  or  one-eighth,  of  the  income.  (See 
Chapter  VIII,  section  "  The  Shopping  Situation.")  The  following 
budgets  suggest  ways  by  which  the  clothing  demands  of  the  present 
are  being  met : 

CLOTHING  BUDGET  OF  A  WORKING  GIRL  ON  A  SALARY  OF  $1200 
WITH  $150  FOR  CLOTHING. 

(terns  of  the  budgets 

Outer   clothing    $75.00 

Underclothing    20.00 

'   Hats 13.00 

Gloves   5.00 

Stockings    6.25 

Shoes  20.75 

Miscellaneous 10.00 


Total      $150.00 

Details  of  Clothing  for  tin'  liudget  Above. — Outer  clothing  is 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE 


167 


generally  bought  with  an  idea  of  lasting  over  two  years  at  least, 
but  some  articles  are  renewed  yearly.  A  regular  number  of  the 
remaining  items  are  bought  each  year.  About  one-half  of  the 
clothing  budget  is  apt  to  be  spent  on  outer  clothing  (Fig.  18). 
The  plans  for  purchase  of  garments  in  different  years  is  shown  below : 

Outer  clothing: 

1920  1921  1922 

Coat $50.00 

Shirtwaists  (1  silk  and  4  white  cotton)  .  .     10.00       $10.00       $10.00 

Serge  skirt 5.00 

Summer  gown    10.00 

Service    gown    25.00 

Separate  skirts    ( cotton )    5.00 

Silk  gown   35.00 

Cloth  suit 40.00 

Light-weight  coat   15.00 

Cotton   skirt    2.00 

Sweater 8.00 

$75.00       $75.00       $75.00 

Underclothing: 

6  nightgowns  at  $1.50  each   (2  each  year) $3.00 

6  knitted  combinations  at  $1.25   (2  each  year) 2.50 

6  summer  petticoats    (2  each  year) 3.00 

6  muslin  combinations  or  chemise  at  $1.50   (3  each  year)  . .  4.50 

1  camisole  each  year    2.00 

2  brassieres  each  year  at  $1.00 2.00 

1  corset  each  year   3.00 

$20.00 

Stockings,  shoes,  et  cetera: 

Stockings— 6  for  $2.75  (cotton)  and  2  for  $3.50  (silk) $6.25 

Shoes — 1  @  $9.00  (high);  2  @  $4.00  (low)  (composition 

soles)  ;  1  pair  slippers  @  $3.75  20.75 

Gloves — 3  pairs  5.00 

Miscellaneous  (rubbers,  handkerchiefs,  neckwear,  hairpins 

toilet  articles)    10.00 

$42.00 


168 


CLOTHING 


CLOTHING  BUDGET  FOR  A  TEACHER  ON  A  SALARY  OF  $1600, 
SHOWING  OUTER  CLOTHING  ONLY 

( Using  $200,  %  of  the  income  and  more  than  %  of  the  clothing  budget  on 

outer  clothing. ) 


First  Year 

Tailored  suit   $75.00 

The  best  of  cloth  is  used  and 
custom  work  is  considered 
necessary.  The  suit  has  cost 
but-  $75.00  for  it  is  ordered 
out  of  season. 

Service  dress    35.00 

This  gown  is  relied  on  chiefly 
for  constant  use.  It  is  a 
ready-to-wear  garment  and 
bought  in  the  late  spring  for 
the  next  winter.  It  is  a  coat 
suit  and  by  the  use  of  varied 
collars  and  cuffs  is  made  ex- 
tremely attractive  and  full 
of  personality. 

Coat    

A  long  warm  dark  wool  with 
excellent  line  and  no  trim- 
ming. Bought  ready-to-wear 
out  of  season.  It  wears 
4  years. 

Dressy   gown    

Of  silk  for  school  receptions. 
It  is  custom-made  at  a  good 
house  and  can  be  used  for 
four  years  by  simple  changes 
of  guimpes  or  collars. 

Party  gown    

This  is  bought  annually, 
quite  in  the  mode,  and  ready- 
to-wear.  Bought  out  of 
Mason. 


Second       Third 


Fourth 
$75.00 


35.00         35.00         35.00 


70.00 


70.00 


35.00    35.00    35.00    35.00 


$145.00  $140.00  $140.00  $145.00 


THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          169 

Estimate  of  a  $250  Clothing  Budget. — The  average  annual 
clothing  budget  of  an  employee  of  the  Canadian  General  Electric 
Company  was  tabulated  for  the  company  and  shows  annual  clothing 
cost  for  a  well-paid  worker.  It  is  as  follows : 

ESTIMATE  OF  A  $250  CLOTHING  BUDGET 

Suit  at  $35.00  to  last  two  years,  and  $5.00  for  alterations, 

cleaning,   et  cetera    $20.00 

Winter  coat  to  last  two  years,  $35.00 17.50 

Sweater  coat  to  last  two  years,  $10.00  5.00 

One  serge  skirt  to  last  two  years,  $10.00 5.00 

One  white  skirt    3.00 

Summer  dress  at  $30.00  to  last  two  years 15.00 

Three  waists  to  last  with  suit  at  $3.50  each 10.50 

Four  working  waists  at  $2.00  each 8.00 

Three  working  aprons  at  $1.00  each  3.00 

Boots 27.00 

Rubbers,  and  repairs  to  boots,  rubber  heels,  etc 8.00 

Hats  ( summer  and  winter )    38.00 

Underwear,  undershirts,  nightgowns,  et  cetera   29.00 

Corsets     15.00 

Hosiery  and  gloves   10.00 

Collars,  et  cetera   5.00 

Handkerchiefs    ( 20  cents  each )    2.40 

Furs  to  last  five  years  at  $65.00 13.00 

Raincoat  to  last  three  years  at  $15 5.00 

Total      .  .  .  .' $239.40 

The  foregoing  table  gives  suggestions  for  those  witn  a  moderate 
income  who  are  beginning  to  form  a  conservative  budget.  The 
prices  are  those  of  1918. 

The  $350  Clothing  Budget  of  a  Business  Woman. — The 
following  estimates  were  made  at  the  beginning1  of  the  year: 

Outer  clothing — more  than  half  of  the  budget $230.00 

Underclothing    43.00 

Boots,  shoes,  and  stockings    21.00 

Hats  and  gloves   . .  . 45.00 

Sundries   15.00 

$354.00 

(The  end  ot  the  year  found  the  estimates  fairly  accurate  and  the 
amount  set  aside  sufficient,  though  prices  had  risen.) 


170 


CLOTHING 


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THE  CLOTHING  BUDGET  AND  THE  WARDROBE          171 


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172  CLOTHING 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  questions  would  you  consider  and  how  would  you  proceed,  to  make 

an  annual  budget? 
'2.  What  varying  proportions  of  the  general  budget  are  used  for  clothing 

and  what  are  the  reasons  for  the  differences? 

3.  What  is  the  use  of  keeping  yearly  accounts  and  ^hat  method  of  pro- 

cedure is  suggested? 

4.  What  articles  of  clothing  should  be  planned  to  last  for  several  years, 

what  proportion  of  other  items  must  be  bought  yearly,  and  how  would 
you  plan  the  clothing  budget  that  it  may  cover  purchases  for  several 
years  ahead? 

5.  What  suggestions   can   you  give   for  the   sensible  clothing   for   infants-, 

school  girls,  and  working  women? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  What  should  a  woman  do  to  obtain  her*  garments  in  the  most  economic 

and  satisfactory  way — make  them  at  home,  buy  ready-to-wear,  go  to 
a  good  custom  dressmaker,  or  combine  all  three  ?  What  is  the  best 
procedure  in  your  own  case? 

2.  How  will  you  dress  a  14-year-old  girl  for  the  winter  when  the  income  is 

moderate?    What  will  it  cost? 

3.  Should  a  woman's  clothing  budget  be  larger  than  a  man's?     Compare 

the  needs. 

4.  Try  to  plan  a  wardrobe  for  the  minimum  of  expense  and  the  maximum 

of.  service  and  pleasing  effect. 

5.  Plan  the  business-like  conduct  of  annual  clothing  expenses  with  regard 

to  production,  consumption,  care  and  repair. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  CARE,  REPAIR,  AND  RENOVATION  OF 
CLOTHING 

Care  of  Clothing  as  a  Part  of  National  Thrift.—  Ease  of  liv- 
ing has  led  to  careless,  happy-go-lucky  ways  of  using  every-day 
articles  and  garments.  Few  have  felt  it  was  necessary  to  spend  time 
on  keeping  clothing  in  good  condition,  even  if  they  were  not  reck- 
less in  their  treatment  of  it.  When  a  garment  is  mussy,  it  goes  to 
the  tailor's,  or  when  it  is  slightly  soiled  to  the  cleaner's,  or  it  is 
cast  aside  instead  of  cleaning  it  quickly  at  home  by  simple  methods 
which  in  the  majority  of  cases  are  sufficient  to  restore  the  article  to 
good  condition  and  thus  save  expense  and  hiring  of  labor.  The 
war  has  brought  to  us  a  new  era,  and  economy  in  clothes  will  be 
required  probably  for  years  ahead  as  a  part  of  a  strenuous  campaign 
of  thrift  in  order  to  pay  the  obligations  the  country  has  taken  on 
itself,  and  to  supply  the  necessities  of  the  prostrate  countries  "  over 
there."  European  countries  are  feeling  the  scarcity  of  new  clothing 
and  are  obliged  to  husband  the  old.  Mr.  McAdoo  has  pointed  out 
that  saving  to  amount  to  anything  worth  while  must  be  in  the 
general  liabits  of  life.  It  is,  therefore,  our  patriotic  duty  to  see  that 
wastes  do  not  occur  and  that  the  care  of  clothing  is  regularly  prac- 
ticed. The  citizens  of  the  United  States  would  do  well  to  study 
the  methods  which  were  used  in  the  Eeclamation  or  Salvage  Plants 
during  the  war  under  an  executive  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force,1  and  be  equally  provident  in  the  care  and  renovation  of 
their  clothing,  and  in  saving  every  piece  of  junk  in  the  home  —  old 
clothes,  rags,  twine,  leather,  paper,  and  rubber.  Such  scraps  can 
be  sold  to  the  junkmen  if  no  other  method  seems  better.  The 
reclamation  work  in  France  saved  the  government  millions  of 
dollars  annually.  Xo  usable  article  of  clothing  or  piece  of  equip- 
ment was  wasted.  Disabled  soldiers,  refugees  and  helpless  French 
women  were  employed.  To  those  who  have  never  been  thoughtful 
of  their  clothing,  the  requirements  mentioned  in  this  chapter  will 
seem  numerous,  tiresome,  and  trivial,  but  the  housekeeper  who  has 
always  felt  the  need  of  doing  her  best  to  prolong  the  life  of  the 


Colonel 

173 


174  CLOTHING 

family  garments  has  become  so  automatic  in  the  care  that  she 
hardly  realizes  that  thought  or  time  is  being  taken. 

Systematic  Care. — The  following  suggestions  for  thrift  were 
made  by  the  girls  of  the  Manhattan  Trade  School  of  New  York 
City  when  planning  the  best  way  to  use  a  small  wage : 

Care  and  Small  Repairs* 

Mend  your  clothes  as  soon  as  they  tear. 

Air  your  clothes  before  putting  them  away. 

Hang  your  clothes  up  so  they  will  not  become  wrinkled. 

Sponge  and  press  woolen  dresses,  skirts,  and  coats. 

Launder  shirtwaists  at  home  if  you  can. 

Keep  all  buttons  and  hooks  and  eyes  carefully  sewed  on. 

When  skirt  bands  wear  out,  put  on  new  ones. 

Keep  skirt  braids  sewed  on. 

The  skirt  of  an  old  dress  can  be  ripped  and  washed  and  made  into 
a  petticoat. 

Put  new  ruffles  and  facings  on  old  petticoats. 

Make  your  own  corset  covers  at  home;  corset  covers  that  will  wear  a 
year  can  be  made  for  25  cents. 

Keep  your  corsets  clean ;  remove  the  bones,  wash  and  dry  the  corset ; 
replace  the  bones  and  bind  the  top  with  a  piece  of  ribbon. 

An  old  sheet  or  nightgown  can  be  made  into  a  bag  to  keep  the  best 
dress  in. 

Darn  your  stockings. 

Keep  your  shoes  clean  and  nicely  polished. 

Keep  your  gloves  clean,  always  mended,  and  buttons  sewed  on. 

Put  your  gloves  away  neatly  when  not  in  use. 

Wash  your  own  ties  and  jabots. 

Make  jabots  from  pieces  of  lawn  and  lace  left  over  from  waists 
and  dresses. 

Keep  your  hata  well  brushed. 

Keep  your  best  hat  in  a  box  or  pillow  slip  when  not  in  use. 

On  a  stormy  day,  wear  a  veil  over  your  hat. 

When  your  hat  becomes  dusty  and  shabby,  take  off  the  trimming,  brush 
and  steam  it  thoroughly  and  retrim  the  hat. 

Keep  your  coat  on  hanger.  A  coat  keeps  its  shape  longer  when  kept 
on  a  hanger. 

The  following  was  also  prepared  for  the  New  York  Child  Wel- 
fare Exhibition  : 

Care  of  Clothing  Raves  Money? 

Every  child  should  be  taught  to  take  care  of  his  own  clothing;  hang  up 
or  fold  up  clothes  when  not  in  use;  wear  an  apron  when  at  work  (clothes 

*"H'ow  to  Live  on  $fi.OO  per  week."  Prepared  for  the  Clothing  Commit- 
tee of  the  Child  Welfare  Exhibit,  New  York,  1»1 1.  (by  Cleo  Murtland.) 

•"Hints  on  Clothing,"  by  Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  chairman  of 
Clothing  Committee  of  Child  Welfare  Kxhibit.  Issued  by  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City,  1911. 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  175 

last  longer  if  kept  clean)  ;  mend  holes  in  clothing  immediately  to  avoid 
bigger  ones ;  wash  out  stains  as  soon  as  possible ;  press  clothing  frequently 
to  keep  it  looking  fresh ;  keep  buttons,  hooks  and  eyes  sewed  on  clothing 
and  do  not  use  pins;  keep  shoes  clean;  make  rompers  and  overalls  for  the 
little  ones.  It  pays  to  darn  good  stockings.  Learn  to  make  old  material 
look  like  new. 

Old  ribbons  can  be  washed  and  pressed  and  used  for  hair  ribbons  or  for 
trimming  hats;  old  flowers  can  be  steamed  and  painted.  Belts,  collars  and 
ties  should  be  made  of  material  that  can  be  cleaned. 

Wash  carefully  and  frequently  the  flannel,  serge,  shepherd's  plaid,  or 
worsted  dresses  and  see  how  nice  they  look.  Wool  should  always  be  washed 
and  rinsed  in  lukewarm  water,  soap  should  not  be  rubbed  on  it,  and  it 
should  not  be  wrung  out  or  it  will  shrink. 

Remove  spots  of  grease  from  a  wool  dress  by  first  brushing  each  spot 
carefully,  then  washing  in  lukewarm  water  with  Ivory  soap,  being  careful 
to  have  clean,  soft,  cotton  cloth  underneath  to  absorb  the  water,  or  it  will 
spread  into  an  ugly  ring.  Remove  all  soap  by  using  a  clean  cloth  and 
clean  water.  Rub  dry  very  gently,  and  press  on  the  wrong  side  with  an 
iron  which  is  not  too  hot. 

Colored  cotton  dresses  can  be  soaked  in  salt  and  water  before  washing 
to  set  the  color. 

Newspapers  are  very  warm  as  an  interlining  in  a  coat  or  placed  between 
bed  coverings. 

Cotton  flannels  burn  very  quickly  and  are  dangerous  if  a  spark  of  fire 
touches  them.  Wool  does  not  burn  quickly  and  can  be  used  to  put  out  a  fire. 

Settlement  classes  can  be  found  which  teach  the  making  of  clothes 
and  hats. 

Clothing  will  wear  longer  if  taken  care  of  regularly.  One  suit  a 
year  if  given  attention  will  look  better  at  the  end  of  that  time  than 
will  three  that  are  neglected.  Every  time  the  outer  clothing  is 
taken  off  it  should  be  brushed,  shaken,  smoothed  if  crushed,  or 
stretched  into  shape  and  then  carefully  placed  on  its  hanger  in  the 
closet.  Skirts  and  coats  should  have  hangers  of  a  form  to  keep 
the  garment  in  good  shape.  Trowser  hangers  are  satisfactory  for 
skirts,  for  they  grasp  the  belt  and  the  garment  hangs  straight.  A 
cheap  hanger  of  wood  (five  or  ten  cents)  is  all  that  is  usually  neces- 
sary, but  for  delicate  blouses  or  one-piece  dresses  a  foundation 
covered  with  cotton  batting  or  soft  tissue  paper  and  some  soft  fabric 
to  hold  the  padding  in  place  is  better.  If  the  bought  hangers  are 
too  expensive,  a  stick  of  wood  with  a  string  tied  in  the  middle  can 
be  used,  or  skirts  can  have  two  big  safety  pins  in  the  band  to  hang 
over  hooks.  Light-colored  gowns  or  waists  should  be  covered  with 
soft  muslin  bags  to  keep  them  from  dust  and  light. 


176  CLOTHING 

Acting  Quickly. — If  there  are  spots  on  a  suit  they  should  be 
brushed  or  washed  off  as  quickly  as  possible,  unless  they  are  too 
serious  for  home  removal  and  need  to  go  to  the  cleaner.  Money  can 
often  be  saved  if  spots  are  removed  while  they  are  fresh.  If  a  gar- 
ment can  stand  cold  water,  it  is  well  to  wash  the  spot  immediately 
after  it  is  made.  For  instance,  if  some  olive  oil  has  fallen  on  the 
front  of  a  silk  gown,  it  can  often  be  removed  with  almost  no  trouble 
by  gently  rubbing  the.  spot  in  a  circular  motion  with  a  little  cold 
water  on  a  clean,  soft  handkerchief.  A  moment  of  attention  may 
save  a  gown  or  at  least  dollars  of  cleaning  costs.  Even  spots  of 
color  thrown  from  a  kettle  full  of  dye  can  often  be  removed  from  a 
washable  gown  if  the  places  are  immediately  wet  with  cold  water 
and  the  garment  put  in  the  sun  and  wet  again  at  intervals  until  the 
spote  disappear.  If  once  allowed  to  dry,  strong  chemicals  would  be 
needed  to  remove  the  dye.  To  put  a  garment  into  the  laundry  ex- 
pecting such  a  spot  to  be  removed  will  result  usually  in  a  permanent 
stain,  as  soap  and  hot  water  will  be  likely  to  set  it.  If  spots  have 
become  dry,  special  methods  must  be  used  to  eradicate  them.  (See 
Chapter  XII,  section  "Removing  Spots  and  Stains/') 

When  suits,  stockings,  or  underwear  are  taken  off,  they  should 
be  quickly  looked  over  to  see  if  a  stitch  or  darn  is  needed.  Without 
this  stitch  buttons  may  be  lost  which  cannot  be  matched,  trimming 
ruined  by  a  lack  of  care,  or  hours  of  work  needed  when  a  moment 
in  the  beginning  would  suffice.  A  garment  soon  looks  shabby  if  the 
minor  repairs  are  not  attended  to  before  wearing  it  again.  It  takes 
very  little  time  to  mend  the  small  breaks  or  press  a  crease.  Every 
woman  should  take  care  of  the  small  repairs  for  herself,  and  thus 
save  paid  labor  for  better  uses.  If  she  buys  only  the  most  enduring 
garments  with  little  trimming,  she  will  find  that  only  a  small 
amount  of  time  is  required  to  keep  them  in  order.  The  mother  of  a 
family  is  to  blame  if  she  does  not  train  the  younger  members  to 
take  care  of  their  own  clothing.  Sewing  on  buttons  can  begin  early 
with  the  little  children,  both  boys  and  girls,  and  there  is  no  reason 
except  prejudice  why  older  boys  should  not  be  trained  to  mend  their 
own  underwear  and  knitted  garments. 

There  are  some  women  who  waste  time  doing  an  unnecessary 
amount  of  exquisite  sewing  in  repairing  old  clothing,  but  they  are 
lost  in  the  great  army  who  let  clothing  go  to  piYr«>s  for  l;i< -k  of  care 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  177 

^ 

at  the  right  time.  There  is  need  for  dainty  handwork,  but  the 
hours  taken  in  over-elaborate  repairs  to  garments  which  are  not 
worth  it  are  a  waste  of  time.  There  are  many,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  rather  exult  over  the  fact  that  they  cannot  sew  at  all,  seeming 
to  feel  it  is  a  thing  in  which  to  pride  themselves.  They  either  waste 
cloth  from  letting  it  go  to  pieces  from  neglect  or  they  unnecessarily 
call  on  labor  to  work  for  them. 

Everyone  should  learn  quick  but  adequate  ways  of  keeping  cloth- 
ing in  good  condition.  Good  sweaters  will  soon  be  destroyed  if 
every  little  break  is  not  caught  immediately,  for  knitted  material 
will  stretch  into  a  gaping  hole,  difficult  to  mend  in  a  way  that  will 
be  invisible.  If  an  old  stocking  is  torn  and  worn  through  in  several 
places,  time  would  be  wasted  in  darning  it  with  great  care,  but  if  a 
large  hole  is  torn  in  an  otherwise  good  stocking,  a  thread  can  be  run 
around  the  hole  to  keep  it  from  stretching,  and  it  can  be  darned  in  a 
short  time  diagonally  across  the  hole  instead  of  at  right  angles; 
double  or  even  three  threads  at  a  time  can  be  used  to  make  the  work 
go  quickly.  Busy  mothers  keep  needles  threaded  with  darning  cot- 
ton ready  to  catch  a  break  in  the  knit  goods  of  the  younger  mem- 
bers of  the  family  before  the  material  stretches.  If  one  needle  is 
threaded  with  one  strand,  another  with  two,  and  a  third  with  three 
strands,  she  is  ready  to  do  quick  work  and  save  herself  a  long  process 
later.  Stockings  can  be  refooted  by  cutting  up  an  old  stocking  for 
the  purpose  or  new  feet  can  be.  bought  at  the  stores  and  sewed  into 
the  leg  after  the  worn  part  has  been  cut  away. 

Muslin  underclothing  is  in  constant  need  of  minor  repairs  and 
knitted  underwear  is  apt  to  break  at  the  point  of  strain  or  friction. 
If  patched  as  soon  as  they  look  thin,  they  will  wear  for  a  long  time 
if  they  are  made  of  good  material  and  have  not  been  ruined  by  care- 
less laundering.  A  small  hole  in  a  knitted  garment  can  be  darned, 
or  if  the  material  is  thin  a  piece  of  the  same  fabric  can  be  laid 
under  the  broken  place,  and  its  raw  edges  catch-stitched  down  on 
the  back  and  on  the  face  in  a  short  time,  so  that  it  will  withstand 
wear.  The  sewing  machine  should  be  used  to  patch  every-day 
muslin  underwear  rather  than  taking  the  time  to  do  it  by  hand.  It 
is  not  requisite  to  make  an  elaborate  overhanded  or  hemmed-down 
patch  in  muslin  underclothing  when  the  life  of  the  article  is  seen 
to  be  short,  but  it  is  almost  criminal  at  the  present  to  allow  gar- 
12 


178  CLOTHING 

ments  to  be  thrown  aside  sooner  than  necessary  when  a  few  minutes 
spent  upon  them  will  make  them  last  for  a  long  time.  To  wear  them 
in  ragged  condition  lowers  one's  self-respect,  produces  irritation 
and  discomfort,  and  shows  lack  of  thrift.  Careful  people  reinforce 
the  garment  at  the  points  most  apt  to  break  and  thus  save  time  later. 
Corsets  are  apt  to  cut  through  where  the  heavy  steel  or  bones  are 
inserted  and  will  have  to  be  repaired  there  before  the  rest  of  the 
garment  shows  much  wear.  A  small  piece  of  heavy  tape  or  a 
double  piece  of  firm  muslin  can  be  overhanded  over  the  bone  to 
keep  it  from  pushing  through.  The  garter  suspenders  are  also  apt 
to  break  soon  and  can  be  easily  repaired  by  sewing  on  new  elastics. 
Men's  shirts  wear  out  quickly  at  the  neckband  and  a  new  one  will 
make  the  garment  as  good  as  new.  The  edge  of  the  starched  collar 
will  often  wear  through  the  fabric  in  front.  This  can  be  readily 
repaired  by  cutting  a  yoke  from  the  tail  of  the  shirt  several  inches 
deep,  thus  making  a  new  front  about  the  size  of  a  dicky.  By  match- 
ing the  pattern  this  repair  is  not  noticed. 

Repairing  Supplies. — Every  citizen,  rich  or  poor,  should  be 
willing  to  wear  mended  clothing  and  thus  save  money  and  labor  for 
more  important  objects.  The  simplest,  strongest  underclothing  is 
the  best,  for  it  will  wear  the  longest  without  need  of  repair.  Laces, 
cheap  embroidery,  and  poor  ribbons  run  through  weak  beading  mean 
constant  repair  and  difficult  washing.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section 
"  Home  Laundering.")  Pieces  of  various  muslins,  scraps  of  suits 
and  gowns,  cotton  net  in  black  and  white,  and  tape  of  different 
widths,  should  be  at  hand  to  be  used  for  repairing.  If  it  is  impos- 
sible to  mend  an  article  as  soon  as  it  shows  a  thin  place,  it  is  well  to 
lay  it  aside  until  there  is  time.  A  regular  period  should  be  taken 
weekly  to  do  this  work;  otherwise,  it  will  accumulate  and  will  seem 
a  big  task.  It  is  not  wise  to  allow  many  of  these  partly  worn  gar- 
ments to  be  out  of  commission,  as  their  absence  from  service  will 
increase  costs  in  the  annual  clothing  budget,  for  new  garments  will 
have  to  be  bought  to  take  their  places.  Systematic  work  in  renova- 
tion makes  the  task  seem  small.  Clothing  should  be  in  repair  when 
needed.  Cotton  nets  are  of  value  in  mending  fine  lingeries,  laces, 
chiffon  and  Georgette  waists,  collars,  cuffs,  and  spencers.  Mending 
tissue  can  be  of  service  in  repairing  a  badly  turn  wool  or  silk  gown. 
The  method  of  use  is  on  the  package.  It  can  !><•  bought  at  any 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  179 

department  store.  The  tissue  does  not  last  long  after  it  is  once 
opened,  but  is  not  expensive.  The  principle  of  mending  with  it  is 
that  one  piece  of  material  can  be  glued  down  on  another  with  the 
tissue,  and  as  the  ragged  threads  on  the  edge  of  the  hole  are  held 
down  it  will  look  better  than  if  the  repair  were  made  by  a  sewed 
down  patch.  The  place  will  be  almost  invisible,  and  if  the  garment 
is  not  given  hard  service  or  put  into  the  laundry,  it  will  wear  a  long 
time.  If  it  needs  staying,  a  few  small  stitches  can  be  inserted  to 
hold  the  repairing  piece  more  strongly  to  the  garment. 

In  order  to  keep  clothing  well  brushed  a  whisk  broom,  a  small 
clothes  brush,  a  velvet  hat  brush  (or  a  piece  of  velvet),  a  fine  wire 
brush,  and  a  piece  of  sandpaper  should  be  at  hand.  There  are  many 
other  varieties  of  brushes  which  are  useful,  but  they  are  not  abso- 
lutely essential.  If  one  is  living  in  a  city  hotel  or  in  a  boarding 
house,  it  is  well  to  have  a  small  electric  iron  to  press  crushed 
materials,  to  steam  velvet,  or  to  remove  grease,  and  a  large  one  for 
pressing  skirts  or  coats.  Dust  causes  clothing  to  deteriorate  quickly. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  to  remove  frequently  such  dust  as  has  accumu- 
lated on  outer  garments.  A  good  method  of  prolonging  the  life  of 
clothing  is  to  alternate  in  the  wearing.  This  should  be  planned  with 
outer  and  under  garments,  shoes,  stockings,  and  corsets.  Shine  is 
apt  to  appear  on  serges  and  on  other  tightly  twisted  worsted  suit- 
ings. This  may  be  due  to  the  wearing  off  of  the  surface  of  the 
yarn,  which  thus  reflects  the  light  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
parts  not  subjected  to  friction,  or  to  grease  from  the  hands  or  body. 
If  of  the  latter  kind,  it  can  sometimes  be  removed  by  moistening 
the  place  with  water  and  rubbing  gently  with  a  piece  of  cloth.  If 
due  to  the  wearing  off  of  the  fiber  the  place  should  be  moistened 
and  rubbed  lightly,  but  too  much  friction  will  cause  the  spot  to 
appear  different  from  the  rest  of  the  cloth.  A  wire  brush  or  a 
piece  of  fine  sandpaper  or  emery  board  can  be  used.  Pressing  the 
place  on  the  wrong  side  after  the  rubbing  will  help  the  appearance. 

Textile  Requirements. — Each  textile  requires  attention  adapted 
to  its  own  qualities.  Wool  needs  frequent  brushing  to  rid  it  of 
dust,  and  also  the  removing  of  spots  when  they  are  fresh,  first  by 
brushing  them  and  then  by  washing  with  white  soap  and  water,  or  if 
dry,  some  household  reagent  fitted  to  remove  the  special  class  of 
stain  may  be  tried.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section  "Removing  Spots 


180  CLOTHING 

and  Stains.")  Sending  the  garment  to  the  cleaner  should  be  the 
last  resort.  A  wool  suit  which  is  damp  should  be  pressed  as  soon 
as  possible,  but  if  it  is  very  wet  it  will  have  to  be  almost  dry  before 
pressing.  It  must  not  be  hung  away  in  a  closet  when  damp  and 
dirty  and  left  to  draw  up  and  wrinkle,  but  after  it  is  dry  it  can  be 
pressed  with  a  warm  iron,  with  a  damp  cloth  over  the  material. 
Dirt  must  be  taken  off  before  pressing.  If  it  is  pressed  on  the  right 
side  with  the  iron  against  the  cloth,  a  shine  will  appear  which  will 
spoil  the  appearance.  Wool,  when  not  in  constant  use,  must  be  pro- 
tected from  moths.  (See  "  Putting  Away  Clothing  for  the  Winter," 
below.)  Wool  cannot  stand  very  hot  water  or  wringing  or  rubbing 
in  the  laundry,  for  it  shrinks  easily.  Soap  should  not  be  put  di- 
rectly on  it,  but  a  suds  of  some  pure  soap  made  and  the  garment 
put  in  it  and  lifted  up  and  down.  Broadcloths  and  other  napped 
goods  are  improved  after  washing  and  drying  by  rubbing  up  the 
nap  with  a  piece  of  soft  wool  cloth.  It  will  often  improve  a  suit 
which  begins  to  look  seedy  to  hang  it  up  for  a  time  and  not  wear  it. 
Alternations  of  heat  and  cold  will  tend  to  raise  the  nap,  which  is 
elastic,  and  improve  the  appearance.  If  a  cloth  suit  is  full  of 
wrinkles  it  can  be  improved  by  hanging  it  in  a  room  filled  with  steam. 
A  bath-room  can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Cotton  cloth,  if  not  too  mussy,  can  be  smoothed  into  shape  by  the 
hand  and  made  to  look  quite  new.  It  requires  frequent  washings, 
but  can  be  kept  in  excellent  condition  even  in  a  boarding  house 
room  by  dampening  and  ironing  it.  Cotton  is  so  easy  to  launder 
that  it  sometimes  pays  a  person  to  wash  dainty  neckwear  or  lace  at 
home  rather  than  to  send  it  to  the  laundry,  where  the  expense  is 
higli  and  the  delicate  parts  may  be  torn.  Color  fades  quickly  in 
cotton,  and  care  in  laundering  is  a  large  factor  in  preserving  it. 
Fine  cottons  quickly  go  to  pieces  if  frequently  laundered  in  winter, 
for  the  starching  and  hanging  in  the  cold  air  weaken  the  fiber. 
Muslins  must  be  mended  carefully  before  being  sent  to  the  laundry. 
Lingerie  waists  and  gowns  should  be  carefully  folded  and  have  soft 
paper  in  the  sleeves  and  in  front  of  the  waist  when  put  away  for  a 
time.  Colored  tissue  papers  are  better  to  use  for  this  purpose  than 
white,  on  account  of  the  strong  bleach  used  in  the  latter.  Starched 
clothing  is  apt  to  deteriorate  if  kept  in  storage. 

Silk  which  is  pure  dyed  will  last  long,  even  if  stored  ;iua\,  but 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  181 

if  full  of  weighting,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  modern  silks,  it 
will  rapidly  deteriorate.  There  is  nothing  that  can  save  the  gar- 
ment, for  it  would  go  to  pieces  if  it  was  not  being  worn.  Chiffon  and 
other  soft,  thin,  silk  waists  should  have  tissue  paper  in  the  sleeves 
when  put  away.  A  silk  waist  will  stay  clean  a  long  time,  hut  one 
of  cotton  and  silk  will  soon  soil. 

Linen  must  be  kept  from  dampness  or  it  will  mildew.  It  is 
enduring  in  white  or  unbleached  color,  but  the  gown  needs  constant 
pressing  to  keep  it  looking  well.  It  will  keep  clean  a  long  time, 
but  creases  and  crushes  readily.  It  should  not  be  put  away  with 
starch  in  it  for  any  length  of  time.  If  it  has  become  yellowed,  it  can 
be  whitened  by  putting  powdered  borax  into  the  wash  water,  or  by 
laying  it  on  the  grass  in  the  sunlight  and  keeping  it  wet.  Valuable 
linen  laces  can  be  laundered  readily  at  home.  If  very  soiled  they 
should  be  soaked  for  several  hours  in  water,  softened  with  suds  of 
white  soap.  After  the  final  washing  and  rinsing  the  lace  should  be 
stretched  carefully  on  a  board  covered  with  a  clean  white  cloth, 
and  every  part  should  be  pinned  to  the  board  in  perfect  shape. 
When  dry  the  lace  should  look  like  new. 

The  Care  of  Various  Articles. — Shoes  will  last  longer  if  given 
care.  (See  Chapter  VI,  section  "  Shoes/')  They  should  be  put 
away  every  night  with  shoe  trees  in  them  to  preserve  their  shape. 
If  the  expense  of  trees  is  an  item,  a  roll  of  soft  paper  can  be  pushed 
well  into  the  toes  and  an  old  corset  steel  sprung  in  against  the 
paper.  For  garden  or  housework  a  strong  leather  or  canvas  low- 
heeled,  broad-toed  shoe  will  wear  longer  than  a  narrow  French  kid 
one  with  high  heels.  Shoes  should  be  repaired  the  moment  -that  a 
heel  begins  to  wear  down  or  a  sole  to  show  holes,  for  the  life  will 
thus  be  prolonged.  Mud  should  be  removed  immediately,  as  it 
stains  the  leather,  and  if  the  shoes  are  damp,  they  should  be  dried 
before  putting  away  in  the  closet.  If  the  shoes  have  become  stiff, 
clean  them  perfectly,  and  when  dry  rub  vaseline  into  them.  This 
may  have  to  be  repeated  several  times  before  the  leather  becomes 
pliable.  Damp  shoes  should  not  be  placed  near  the  heat  or  the 
leather  will  be  injured.  Shoes  quickly  weaken  at  the  sole  when  wet, 
for  the  stitches  soften  and  break.  They  should  be  kept  well  cleaned 
and  polished  at  all  times.  Vaseline  or  castor  oil  rubbed  at  intervals 
on  heavy  walking  boots  is  a  help  to  the  leather.  Patent  leather 


182  CLOTHING 

shoes  can  be  polished  with  milk  on  a  cloth  and  then  rubbed  up  with 
a  piece  of  soft  silk.  It  is  difficult  to  repair  shoes  at  home,  but  small 
precautions  can  be  taken,  such  as  inserting  an  extra  sole  in  the  shoe 
if  the  one  in  it  seems  defective,  or  mending  small  holes  in  the 
leather  with  adhestive  plaster  which  can  be  colored  to  keep  it  from 
showing.  Fiber  tops  can  be  bought  to  fasten  on  the  soles  of  shoes 
or  sneakers  to  prolong  the  wear  or  to  repair  a  worn  place.  A  pair  of 
shoes  that  is  used  in  alternation  with  another  pair  will  wear  much 
more  than  twice  as  long.  Wearing  rubbers  in  damp  or  wet  weather 
helps  to  prolong  the  life  of  shoes,  for  the  sewing  thread  is  kept  dry. 
A  simple  outfit  for  blacking  shoes,  consisting  of  a  small  dauber  for 
the  paste,  a  strong  bristle  brush  for  brushing,  and  a  buffer  for 
polishing  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  family.  Liquid 
polishes  are  frequently  injurious  to  leather  and  the  pastes  and 
blackings  should  be  bought  from  reliable  firms.  It  is  well  to  have 
a  small  brush  to  put  on  oil  or  paste  polishes  (an  old  tooth  brush,  if 
not  too  soft,  can  be  used),  a  stiff  brush  to  remove  dirt  (brushes 
that  can  serve  this  purpose  can  be  bought  at  the  five-and-ten-cent 
stores),  an  extra  buffer  or  soft  cloth  (an  old  stocking  can  be  used), 
a  small  bottle  of  castor  oil  for  softening  the  leather,  and  one  of 
linseed  oil  for  waterproofing  heavy  leather.  If  a  pair  of  shoes  be- 
comes too  dirty  to  be  cleaned  by  a  brush,  they  can  be  washed  with 
warm  water,  placed  on  shoe  trees,  and  rubbed  with  castor  oil  before 
they  are  quite  dry.  Linseed  oil  rubbed  into  a  pair  of  heavy  walking 
shoes  and  well  dried  will  tend  to  waterproof  them.  The  soles  can  be 
waterproofed  by  soaking  in  a  little  neat's  foot  oil.  A  shoe  horn 
should  be  used  when  putting  on  low  shoes,  rubber  shoes  should  be 
cared  for  persistently  to  keep  them  in  good  condition  as  long  as 
possible.  A  paper  wad  put  into  the  heel  helps  to  prolong  their 
service,  and  they  should  always  be  put  away  clean,  and  stuffed 
with  soft  paper.  If  a  pair  of  rubbers  wears  out  in  the  heel 
they  can  still  be  useful  if  the  worn  part  is.  completely  cut  away, 
making  them  into  sandals.  Adhesive  plaster  can  be  used  to  re- 
pair small  holes  in  them.  Rubber  shoes  beginning  to  wear  can  be 
repaired  by  vulcanizing,  as  is  done  with  rubber  tires  for  automo- 
biles. Commercial  preparations  for  mending  holes  and  cuts  in 
rubber  are  on  the  market  at  a  low  price. 

Stockings  will  wear  better  if  slightly  longer  than  the  feet.     (See 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  183 

Chapter  VI,  section  "Knit  Goods  and  Hosiery.")  The  feet  of 
stockings  worn  during  the  day  should  be  washed  out  at  night  and 
another  pair  put  on  the  next  day,  perspiration  and  dirt  deteriorate 
the  fiber,  consequently,  washing  out  and  alternation  will  help  in  the 
endurance.  Stockings  should  not  remain  long  in  the  water  nor 
should  soap  be  rubbed  on  them,  washing  them  quickly  in  a  solu- 
tion of  warm  water  and  some  white  soap  is  good.  The  life  of  silk 
stockings  can  be  prolonged  by  sewing  a  piece  of  soft  silk  inside  of 
the  toe  and  heel  and  where  the  suspenders  draw,  or  these  parts  can 
be  darned  over  and  strengthened.  A  heavier  yarn  is  now  being  in- 
troduced into  the  knitting  at  this  point,  and  cheap  silk  stockings 
have  cotton  in  the  feet  and  upper  leg  to  improve  the  wear.  The 
manner  of  putting  on  a  stocking  is  a  factor  in  its  endurance.  The 
foot  part  should  be  put  on  first  and  the  leg  of  the  stocking  should 
be  gathered  together  with  both  hands  and  gently  pulled  up  without 
strain  on  the  texture.  A  stocking  should  be  mended  as  soon  as  a 
small  hole  appears,  and  thin  places  should  be  repaired  with  a  slant- 
ing darn.  The  lining  of  the  shoe  should  be  mended  the  moment  it 
becomes  worn,  or  it  will  rub  the  stocking  into  a  hole.  A  piece  of 
soft  leather  pasted  in  the  heels  of  shoes  will  help  the  stockings  to 
wear  longer,  for  the  lining  of.  ihis  part  of  the  shoe  is  apt  to  break 
and  rub  against  the  stocking,  causing  it  to  wear  out.  A  smooth, 
soft  leather  heel  can  be  bought  to  slip  over  the  stocking  before  put- 
ting on  the  shoe,  which  •  prolongs  the  life  of  the  stocking.  Old 
stockings  are  very  useful  in  the  household.  Excellent  floor  mops 
can  be  made  by  cutting  them  into  strips  %  of  an  inch  wide  and 
fastening  them  into  a  holder.  They  make  good  dusters ;  baby  shirts 
can  be  made  of  fine  white  lisle  or  silk  stockings,  and  smaller  stock- 
ings can  be  cut  from  the  good  parts  of  larger  ones.  (See  Frontis- 
piece and  charts  in  Appendix.) 

Gloves  of  silk,  kid,  or  cotton  can  have  their  life  extended  by 
putting  a  little  cotton  batting  into  the  end  of  each  finger,  for  the 
nails  do  not  then  have  a  chance  to  rub  or  to  cut  through.  As  soon 
as  a  seam  in  a  glove  breaks,  it  should  be  mended  for  the  appear- 
ance of  a  broken  seam  is  slovenly,  and  only  a  moment  is  needed  to 
sew  it  together.  Cotton  is  better  than  silk  for  mending  seams  on 
kid  gloves.  Kid  gloves  do  not  keep  well  for  any  length  of  time 
for  they  are  apt  to  mildew,  spot,  and  dry  out.  It  pays  to  buy  the 


184  CLOTHING 

best,  as  they  wear  longer.  Black  or  dark  kid  gloves  often  rub  and 
whiten  at  the  finger  tip  and  are  not  the  most  economical  purchase ; 
a  good  white  pair  wears  better  for  it  can  be  cleaned.  Kid  gloves  are 
less  satisfactory  for  wear  in  hot  weather  than  in  cold,  for  they  be- 
come stiff  with  perspiration  and  lose  their  color.  When  worn  in- 
side of  a  muff  they  are  apt  to  stain  from  the  heat.  Cotton  and 
silk  gloves  are  better  for  this  purpose.  Washable  kid  gloves  are 
sometimes  satisfactory,  but  it  is  well  to  buy  only  the  best  and  to 
observe  carefully  the  rules  for  cleaning.  If  gloves  fit  too  snugly 
they  can  be  improved  by  placing  them  on  a  piece  of  cloth  on  a 
radiator  for  a  short  time  to  soften  before  putting  them  on.  If  they 
are  damp  with  perspiration  when  taking  them  off,  air  should  be 
blown  into  them  that  they  may  dry  in  better  form.  The  habit  of 
always  pulling  gloves  into  shape  when  taking  them  off  is  an  excel- 
lent one.  Soapy  cold  water  is  best  to  wash  fabric  gloves. 

Appropriate  Dress  a  Factor  in  Wear. — It  is  important  to 
wear  garments  that  are  appropriate  to  the  occasion  if  one  would 
keep  them  in  good  condition.  A  good  tailor-made  suit,  dainty 
lingerie,  light,  delicate  waists  of  Georgette  or  chiffon  are  not  appro- 
priate for  work  in  the  kitchen,  for  gardening,  or  for  housework, 
yet  they  are  constantly  so  used,  both  when  new  and  when  over 
shabby.  The  best  garments  for  such  service  are  those  that  will  not 
soil  or  tear  easily,  yet  will  launder  without  undue  labor.  The  dark 
apron  dress,  the  "  Hoover  "  suit,  the  overalls,  or  a  working  gown 
adapted  to  indoor  or  out-of-door  work  should  be  worn  in  place  of 
new  or  old  finer}'.  Service  clothing  can  be  bought  ready  to  wear 
or  can  be  quickly  made  at  home.  If  necessary  to  do  some  piece  of 
work  when  there  is  not  time  to  change  to  a  working  dress,  a  dark 
apron  of  jean  or  gingham  can  serve  as  a  coverall.  The  nurse's  large 
white  apron  is  excellent  to  cover  clothing  from  injury,  if  the  work 
is  not  of  a  character  to  soil  it  quickly,  and  a  small  apron  of  good 
muslin  can  be  of  service  in  keeping  the  front  of  a  dress  clean  where 
the  hands  touch  it,  but  most  of  the  lace-trimmed  "  tea  aprons  "  are 
a  trouble  to  launder  and  keep  in  repair.  Little  children  should  be 
provided  with  apron  dresses,  rompers,  or  other  play  garments ; 
school  children  should  be  dressed  in  plain,  quickly  washed  and  easily 
repaired  clothing,  and  not  in  lingerie  and  easily  destroyed  frocks 
fitted  for  dressy  wear  only;  college  girls  and  business  \\nmen  .should 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  185 

be  clad  in  sensible,  enduring  clothing,  and  homekeepers  during 
their  work  hours  should  wear  service  garments. 

Putting  Clothing  Away  for  the  Winter. — The  climate  of  the 
United  States  offers  varieties  of  heat  and  cold  that  demand  differ- 
ing weights  of  garments.  In  the  winter  in  many  parts  heavy  wools 
and  furs  are  needed,  but  in  summer  lighter  cotton  clothing  is  ade- 
quate. If  the  winter  clothing  is  left  hanging  in  a  closet  all  sum- 
mer, it  is  apt  to  suffer  deterioration  from  moths  or  even  rats.  (It 
is  said  that  so  great  are  the  annual  ravages  of  the  latter  in  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter  that  the  work  of  200,000  men  is  needed  to 
make  the  loss  good.)  In  the  northern  part  of  the  country  the 
moths  begin  to  lay  their  eggs  between  April  and  June.  In  the 
south  this  may  occur  at  any  time.  The  little  gray  moth  miller 
can  be  seen  flying  about  the  rooms  trying  to  find  a  place  to  deposit 
her  eggs,  so  that  the  larvae  when  they  appear  may  have  the  best  of 
food.  The  larva  of  the  moth  is  of  special  danger  to  woolen  gar- 
ments, and  those  suits  that  are  not  clean,  well  brushed  and  in  use 
are  more  apt  to  become  infested.  If  the  larvae  are  once  hatched  in 
the  cloth,  they  are  apt  to  begin  their  ravages,  minding  little  the 
many  preparations  placed  there  to  destroy  them.  The  only  safe 
method  of  caring  for  clothing  and  furs  is  to  keep  the  flying  moth 
out  of  them  by  putting  the  garments  away  in  tightly  closed  paper 
packages,  in  boxes,  in  cedar  chests,  or  in  heavy  tar  paper  bags. 
Garments  that  are  not  to  be  put  away  should  have  frequent  shak- 
ings, brushings,  beatings,  and  exposure  to  sunlight.  Camphor  and 
naphthaline  balls,  cedar  chips  when  fresh,  sprayed  benzine  or  form- 
aldehyde, and  other  remedies  are  of  service  if  the  eggs  are  not 
already  laid  in  the  cloth.  Experiments  by  the  Bureau  of  Entom- 
ology, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,4  indicate  that 
naphthaline  is  particularly  effective  in  protecting  woolens  from 
clothes  moths,  that  the  red  cedar  chest  kills  adult  moths,  and  that 
red  cedar  chips  used  freely  have  an  appreciable  effect  in  driving 
moths  away.  The  garments  that  are  to  be  put  away  should  be  dry 
and  clean;  spots  should  be  removed;  and  the  brushing  should  be 
thorough,  so  that  lapels,  pockets,  and  spaces  under  the  collars,  etc., 
may  not  harbor  the  eggs. 

<  Farmers'  Bulletin  707.  Copies  of  this  can  be  obtained  from  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  five  cents.  Also  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  Weekly  News  Letter,  March  19,  1919. 


186  CLOTHING 

The  folding  of  the  garment  should  be  orderly,  and  parts  apt  to 
crush,  such  as  sleeves,  .should  have  soft,  dark  tissue  paper  inserted. 
If  the  housekeeper  does  not  know  the  way  to  fold  cloth  garments, 
she  should  learn  the  art  at  a  tailor's  or  at  a  dressmaker's,  so  that 
when  clothing  is  taken  out  in  the  fall  it  will  be  in  perfect  condition 
to  wear.  In  folding  woolen  garments  two  parts  of  cloth  should  not 
touch  each  other,  but  paper  should  come  between.  Newspapers  are 
very  satisfactory  for  wrapping  dark  cloth  suits.  When  folded  the 
garment  is  ready  to  be  stored.  The  package  or  box  should  be  made 
secure  by  pasting  a  piece  of  paper  over  any  part  where  a  moth  could 
crawl  in;  and  it  should  be  marked  carefully,  so  that  its  contents 
may  be  easily  distinguished.  If  care  is  taken  there  is  no  reason  to 
pay  for  the  cold  storage  of  even  valuable  furs.  In  putting  away 
evening  gowns  or  waists  dark  tissue  paper  should  be  used  freely  in 
the  sleeves,  between  the  parts,  and  to  hold  the  front  of  the  waist 
from  crushing,  so  that  the  soft  fabric  and  laces  may  keep  in  good 
shape.  Fine  lingerie  should  be  carefully  pulled  into  shape  before 
folding.  Starched  clothing  is  apt  to  weaken  when  kept  long  in 
storage,  therefore,  it  is  well  to  put  summer  clothing  away  clean 
without  starch.  Cotton  and  linens  mildew  more  readily  than  other 
textiles  and  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place.  Clothing  that  is  to  be  re- 
made would  better  be  ripped  and  brushed  and  the  spots  cleaned,  and 
the  cloth  laid  away  in  flat  pieces.  It  will  then  be  ready  to  work  on 
and  will  be  fresher  and  more  satisfactory  in  appearance  than  if  left  in 
its  former  condition.  Heavy  clothing  should  not  remain  hanging 
all  slimmer,  as  tihe  shoulders  or  bias  seams  are  often  pulled  out  of 
shape.  When  putting  away  flat  goods,  such  as  ribbons  or  material 
by  the  yard,  it  is  well  to  roll  them  on  bolts  or  boards  as  is  done  in 
the  factories  where  they  are  made  ready  for  sale.  Shoes  that  are 
not  to  be  worn  for  a  season  should  be  cleaned,  oiled,  put  on  trees, 
and  stored  carefully. 

Conservation  of  Hats. — It  has  been  customary  for  women  to 
have  a  number  of  hats  to  match  different  costumes,  consequently 
the  cost  of  millinery  has  been  a  large  item  in  many  budgets.  To 
order  a  hat  at  a  house  with  a  big  reputation  meant  a  large  outlay 
of  money  that  seemed  greater  than  was  warranted,  even  when  the 
amount  of  trimming  and  cost  of  labor  were  considered.  Conditions 
IP  the  millinery  trade,  however?  have  been  factors  in  the  cost  of 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  187 

hats.  It  is  a  seasonal  occupation  which  is  very  busy  for  spring  and 
winter  trade,  and  then  has  long  months  intervening  when  work  is 
slack  or  closed  down  altogether.  Large  prices  must  of  necessity  be 
paid  to  the  designers  and  trimmers  during  their  work  time,  and 
these  costs  go  into  the  hats.  There  is  both  the  ready-to-wear  and 
the  custom  trade.  Many  prefer  the  latter,  for  they  feel  that  per- 
sonality oan  then  have  consideration,  but  in  general,  even  in  the  cus- 
tom trade,  fashion  has  controlled  the  shape  and  trimming  of  the  hat 
rather  than  the  particular  need  of  the  individual.  On  account  of 
rapidly  changing  fashion  in  the  style  of  hats,  it  has  become  the  habit 
to  use  effective,  temporary  materials  in  silks,  velvets,  feathers,  and 
decorations,  so  that  unnecessary  costs  may  be  lessened.  The  custom 
trade  of  the  better  class  has  been  able  in  the  past  to  obtain  good 
prices,  from  $12  to  $50  not  being  unusual. 

The  present  times  demand  thrift  and  the  hat  must  bear  its 
share.  Methods  of  saving  on  the  cost  of  hats  have  been  presented  by 
the  ready-to-wear  trade  in  the  sport  silk  hat,  which  can  be  worn  in 
most  seasons,  and  in  velvet,  silk  and  straw  hats  in  many  differing 
models  from  $5  to  $10  apiece.  The  custom  trade  during  the  war 
offered  conservation  models  which,  with  a  slight  adjustment,  could 
be  worn  for  differing  occasions — a  crown  in  another  color  can  be 
inserted,  or  a  change  of  ornament  or  a  series  of  colored  bands  put  on 
as  desired  can  make  one  hat  serve  for  various  costumes.  This 
might  well  be  continued.  Waterproof  maline  hats  can  be  used  both 
winter  and  summer  by  the  addition  of  a  little  fur  or  velvet  in  the 
winter  season.  The  need  to  conserve  is  bringing  shapes  of  greater 
simplicity  and  of  equal,  if  not  of  greater  beauty,  than  former  styles. 
A  turban  of  good  straw  will  last  for  several  years  by  having  small 
adjustments  made  each  summer.  Trimming  has  been  reduced  in 
amount,  and  when  really  good  can  be  renovated  and  used  again. 
Those  who  realize  that  the  one  hat  must  be  worn  for -many  months 
with  every  gown  become  more  particular  that  the  shape  shall  not 
be  extreme,  «that  the  color  shall  suit  all  garments,  that  the  mate- 
rials shall  be  of  the  best  and  easily  renovated,  and  that  the  hat  shall 
be  becoming.  Extremes  of  style  are  less  in  evidence,  and  yet  there 
is  no  diminution  in  good  appearance.  The  hat  is  important  to  the 
success  of  the  toilet  and  needs  thought,  but  not  of  necessity 
great  expense. 


188  CLOTHING 

Two  hats,  one  for  summer  and  one  for  winter,  with  perhaps  one 
or  at  most  two  sport  hats,  could  cover  the  annual  requirement. 
They  need  not  be  bought  each  year  if  care  is  taken.  Many  girls 
and  women  are  trimming  their  own  hats.  Courses  of  instruction 
are  plentiful,  which  enable  any  one  with  taste  to  make  her  own  and 
the  family  headwear  at  home  and  remodel  without  much  time  being 
spent.  The  methods  of  renovation  taught  are  proving  that  good 
materials  are  worth  buying.  In  planning  the  shape  of  the  hat  the 
entire  figure  should  be  taken  into  account.  Many  who  have  faces 
for  which  a  large  hat  is  becoming  will  find,  when  looking  in  a  long1 
mirror,  that  the  general  effect  on  the  entire  figure  is  not  good,  and 
that  a  small  hat  will  be  better. 

Straw  hats  can  be  restored  after  they  are  limp  with  dampness 
by  light  pressing  with  a  warm  iron  over  a  damp  cloth.  There  are 
various  ways  of  bleaching  white  straw  hats,  among  which  are  to 
wash  with  ivory  soap  and  luke-warm  water,  then  brush  well  with 
oxalic  acid  or  lemon  juice  and  sulphur  made  into  a  paste.  There 
are  many  reliable  cleansers  on  the  market.  The  solution  of  oxalic 
acid  must  not  be  too  strong  and  ought  to  be  tested  by  dripping 
some  of  it  on  a  clean  white  pine  board,  then  if  bubbles  appear  it  is 
too  strong  and  should  be  diluted.  When  using  this  solution  brush 
the  hat  well  first,  using  the  solution  and  then  clean  water.  The 
brim  should  be  covered  with  a  cloth  and  pressed  with  a  warm  iron. 
Black  straw  hats  can  be  freshened  by  rubbing  them  with,  a  piece  of 
velvet  dipped  in  kerosene  or  gasoline.  They  may  be  blackened 
again  with  a  commercial  dye  made  for  this  purpose.  White  felt 
hats  can  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  them  with  French  chalk  and  then 
brushing  well ;  and  all  felt  hats  can  be  improved  by  rubbing  them 
with  sandpaper.  The  cleaning  should  begin  at  the  top  of  the  hat 
and  the  brush  should  be  moved  in  a  circle.  Colored  straw  hats  can 
be  renovated  by  the  use  of  commercial  dyes  in  hot  solution.  The 
shape  of  a  straw  hat  can  be  changed  by  dampening  the  brim  and 
bending  it  into  the  desired  form  until  it  is  dry,  and  wining  the  edge 
to  preserve  the  shape.  Velvet  can  be  steamed  and  brushed  to  re- 
new it.  Old  velvets  can  be  panned  (pressed  on  the  right  side  when 
damp  with  a  long  stroke,  always  in  the  same  direction),  or  if  much 
faded  they  can  be  shirred  and  thus  make  good  hat  trimming.  A 
new  brim  can  be  easily  cut  from  a  big  felt  hat  by  marking  the 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  189 

desired  shape  with  chalk,  and  then  stitching  around  the  line  with  a 
fine  stitch  on  a  sewing  machine.  By  bending  back  and  forth,  the 
extra  felt  will  come  off  and  yet  leave  a  soft  edge.  To  clean  dark 
fur  rub  into  it  fine  bran  very  hot  and  then  shake  it  out.  White  fur 
can  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  it  with  gasoline  or  alcohol  and  then 
combing  with  a  coarse  stiff  comb.  Eibbons  can  be  sponged  with 
alcohol  and  water,  and  pressed  under  a  cloth  when  nearly  dry.  The 
iron  should  not  be  hot,  and  the  ribbon  should  be  held  up  a  little  in 
the  hand  as  it  is  ironed.  Chiffon  and  laces  can  be  washed  by  care- 
fully dipping  them  up  and  down  in  warm  water  with  white  soap  in 
solution,  and  then  dried  by  pinning  carefully  into  shape  on  a  board. 
Chloroform  will  often  restore  color  to  faded  materials,  and  spots 
on  velvet  and  plush  can  be  removed  by  it.  Feathers  can  be  made 
flexible  by  holding  them  over  the  heat  of  the  radiator  and  curled 
by  drawing  the  flues  over  the  dull  edge  of  a  silver  knife.  Light 
colored  ones  can  be  cleaned  with  gasoline,  then  drawn  through  the 
fingers  until  the  liquid  is  almost  gone  and  dried  in  corn  starch :  to 
do  this  turn  the  feather  over  in  the  starch  and  shake  it  out  well. 
Dark  feathers  can  be  cleaned  in  wood  alcohol  and  shaken  dry.  An- 
other method  of  cleaning  feathers  is  to  dip  them  up  and  down  in  a 
solution  of  white  soap  and  warm  water  and  dry  them  between  soft 
clothes.  The  feathers  should  then  be  waved  back  and  forth  over  a 
heater  until  thoroughly  dry,  and  curled  over  the  back  of  a  knife. 
Colored  flowers  can  be  retinted  with  water  color.  A  curling  iron 
can  be  used  to  freshen  bows  in  hats  by  dampening  the  ribbons  and 
steaming  them  with  the  hot  iron. 

An  old  hat  made  on  a  buckram  frame  can  be  renewed  by  taking 
off  all  covering,  trimming  and  wires,  then  cutting  the  shape  as  de- 
sired and  removing  all  dents  by  pressing  the  hat  when  it  is  damp. 
A  cloth  should  be  placed  over  the  buckram  when  it  is  being  ironed. 
The  hat  can  then  be  rewired,  covered,  and  trimmed.  If  a  covered 
hat  is  too  hot  and  heavy  for  comfort,  the  buckram  crown  can  be  cut 
out  under  the  material  used  for  the  crown.  Hats  should  be  brushed 
and  the  trimming  adjusted  if  necessary  each  time  they  are  worn. 
The  best  hat  should  be  kept  in  a  box  with  tissue  paper  to  keep  it 
in  place,  and  if  necessary  soft  paper  can  be  put  into  the  bows  to 


190  CLOTHING 

keep  them  in  shape.  All  hats  when  not  in  use,  should  be  kept 
away  from  the  dust. 

Hints  for  Care  and  Repair. — Skirts  should  have  silk  braid  back 
of  the  lower  edge  to  preserve  them.  Mercerized  braid  is  less  satis- 
factory than  silk  braid.  A  silk  petticoat  will  wear  much  longer  if  a 
piece  of  cotton  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  scant  ruffle  of  the  same  color  is 
placed  under  the  skirt  at  the  back  where  the  shoe  strikes  the  silk. 
This  strip  does  not  need  to  go  all  around  the  skirt. 

The  buttons  on  children's  clothing  should  be  reinforced  by  tape 
to  keep  them  from  pulling  off. 

Shields  should  be  washed  regularly  to  keep  them  in  good  order. 

Boys'  gloves  and  pumps  are  cheaper  than  those  for  women  and 
are  generally  stronger.  Many  women  and  girls  wear  them  and 
thus  save  money. 

A  damask  table  cover  usually  begins  to  wear  in  the  folds.  It  can 
have  its  service  lengthened  if  a  piece  is  cut  off  from  one  side  and 
across  the  width  and  then  rehemmed.  The  folds  will  thus  come  in 
another  place. 

The  darning  of  thin  linen  or  cotton  material  can  be  done  on  the 
sewing  machine  by  running  the  stitches  back  and  forth  over  the 
place,  both  warp  and  woof  way.  Muslin  underwear  can  be  mended 
with  a  patch  sewed  down  by  the  machine  instead  by  hand. 

Furs  can  be  kept  free  of  dust  by  beating  them  in  the  sunshine 
several  times  during  a  winter,  which  will  prolong  the  life  of  the  fur. 

Silk  fabrics  when  split  can  be  mended  with  a  simple  stitch 
called  "  fine  drawing."  This  is  a  slanting  stitch  which  shows  little 
as  it  alternates  from  one  side  of  the  break  to  the  other. 

Thin  silk  blouses  wear  quickly  under  the  arm.  As  soon  as  a 
worn  spot  appears  a  piece  of  the  same  material  should  be  placed 
under  it  and  carefully  darned  down.  This  should  not  show  when 
the  arm  is  raised  and  will  enable  the  blouse  to  give  longer  service. 
Some  careful  people  have  an  extra  piece  of  silk  placed  inside  under 
the  arm  when  the  garment  is  made. 

In  cleaning  cloth  it  is  well  to  make  a  small  roll  of  the  same 
material  with  which  to  rub  on  the  cleaning  liquid.  A  rubber  band 
put  around  the  roll  will  hold  it  in  shape. 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  191 

For  repairing  and  patching  a  garment,  old  material  is  usually 
more  satisfactory  than  new.  A  patch  shows  less  if  the  repairing 
piece  is  of  the  same  material,  and  if  warp,  woof,  and  up  and  down 
of  the  cloth  and  pattern  are  matched.  In  heavy  dress  goods  a 
hemmed-down  or  overhanded  patch  shows  too  much,  and  a  piece  of 
cloth  can  be  carefully  darned  down  over  the  hole,  or,  if  the  material 
does  not  fray,  the  "fine  drawing"  stitch  will  hold  the  patch  to 
the  fabric,  or  mending  tissue  can  be  used. 

Good  work  in  pressing  clothing  can  be  done  at  home  even  if  it 
is  not  as  expert  as  the  tailor's.  If  the  regular  laundry  equipment  is 
not  available,  a  board  can  be  covered  with  a  blanket  and  with  a 
smooth  piece  of  muslin  pinned  tight  over  that.  A  sleeve  board  is  of 
service  in  pressing  trimmings  and  neckwear  as  well  as  sleeves,  and 
being  small  can  easily  be  put  out  of  sight,  even  in  a  hall  bed-room. 

An  old  coat  can  be  improved  if  the  worn  buttonholes  are  sewed 
up,  the  buttons  placed  over  them,  and  new  buttonholes  made  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  coat. 

Kid  gloves  can  be  repaired  by  overhanding  the  broken  seams  or 
if  there  is  a  hole  by  making  the  buttonhole  stitch  around  it  in 
cotton  of  the  same  color,  and  holding  it  together  with  a  network  of 
the  same  stitches.  Commercial  cleaners  clean  kid  gloves  well  and 
at  a  low  price,  consequently  if  a  good  place  is  available  it  often  pays 
to  use  it.  In  home  cleaning  the  gloves  can  be  put  on  the  hands  and 
washed  in  naphtha  or  benzine,  stretched  into  shape  carefully,  and 
hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry.  To  do  the  work  successfully  takes  care 
and  patience.  Each  finger  and  the  back  and  front  of  the  gloves 
should  be  rubbed  separately  with  a  soft  cloth  which  is  wet  with  the 
liquid.  X  aphtha  and  benzine  are  so  inflammable  that  the  bottle 
containing  them  should  be  kept  corked.  It  is  well  to  do  the  work 
near  an  open  window  and  far  away  from  any  flame.  Fresh  milk  or 
turpentine  are  also  used  for  the  purpose. 

Renovation,  Remodelling,  or  Making  Over. — Making  over 
an  old  gown  into  an  elaborate  garment  is  seldom  worth  while.  Many 
do  it  from  the  love  of  extreme  fashion  changes  or  for  the  reason 
that  they  have  no  better  method  of  spending  their  time.  New 
gowns  should  be  selected  or  planned  that  are  not  apt  to  go  out  of 
style,  and  with  trimmings  that  will  clean  readily  or  can  be  changed 
without  spoiling  the  gown.  If  this  were  the  general  practice,  much 


192  CLOTHING 

time  would  be  saved  in  renovation.  Good  tailors,  dressmakers,  and 
many  department  stores  are  willing  each  year  to  make  such  small 
adjustments  as  the  gown  they  have  made  or  sold  is  apt  to  need. 
As  soon  as  a  suit  needs  new  buttons,  facings,  linings,  bindings, 
cleaning  and  pressing,  it  should  be  put  in  order  at  home  or  at  the 
place  from  which  it  came.  Small  repairs  of  this  kind  are  necessary, 
but  the  entire  making  over  of  a  gown  is  a  different  matter  and  is 
only  justifiable  when  the  cloth  is  in  excellent  condition  throughout 
and  the  color  good,  so  that  money  will  be  saved. 

The  ripping  up  of  an  entire  garment  and  the  renovation  of  the 
cloth  and  trimming  take  more  time  frequently  than  to  make  a 
new  suit,  and  the  one  who  has  to  do  it  must  consider  the  value  of  her 
time  when  deciding  on  the  sort  of  remodelling  she  will  attempt. 
With  labor  scarce  and  expensive  at  the  present  time,  the  expense 
of  the  process  must  also  be  taken  into  account.  A  garment  to  be 
made  over  must  be  ripped  carefully  and  brushed ;  then  spots  should 
be  removed  and  the  cloth  washed,  sponged  or  cleaned,  and  often 
turned  or  dyed ;  only  then  is  it  ready  to  be  recut  and  made  up.  Old 
material  has  a  subtle  way  of  looking  its  age  which  is  indescribable, 
and  often,  after  spending  days  working  on  an  old  gown,  it  is  an  old 
gown  still  and  looks  little  better  than  before.  If  a  dressmaker  has 
been  employed,  the  cost  of  the  changes  may  be  so  great  as  to  make 
the  result  anything  but  an  economy.  It  does  pay  to  make  over  or 
renovate  a  gown  when  the  changes  of  form  are  few  and  the  time  of 
the  worker  is  not  taken  from  something  more  important.  The 
question  to  consider,  therefore,  is — Will  the  result  justify  all  of  this 
work,  or  will  it  be  better  to  make  the  garment  over  for  some  one  who 
is  smaller,  and  thus  save  ripping,  eliminate  all  the  rubbed  and 
poorer  parts,  make  a  simple  quickly  constructed  gown,  and  one 
which  is  more  apt  to  look  and  feel  like  new.  Minor  renovations, 
such  as  the  removal  of  spots,  washing  or  pressing  neckwear,  mend- 
ing small  breaks,  replacing  the  soiled  or  worn  parts,  or  sewing  on 
buttons  are  almost  daily  needs  on  some  part  of  the  wardrobe. 
Much  money  can  be  saved  if  these  things  are  done  at  home  either 
by  the  family  or  with  the  aid  of  a  seamstress. 

The  following  record  shows  the  cost  of  making  and  renovatinir 
a  gown  in  a  country  neighborhood.     The  prices  are  those  of 
In  this  case  the  remodelling  was  well  worth  while: 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  193 

First  season: 

Cloth  54  inches  wide,  4  yards  at  $2.00  per  yard $8.00 

Trimming,  buttons,  .75;  lace,  .35;  strip  of  velvet,  .15..  1.25 

Dressmaker  at  home 6.00 

$15.25 
Second  season: 

Dry  cleaning   $1.25 

Replacing  the  old  trimming  with  some  left  over  goods . . 

Dressmaker  for  alteration    2.50 

$3.75 
Third  season: 

Dry  cleaning   $1.25 

Taffeta  silk,  2  yards  at  $1.50 3.00 

Dressmaker  for  alteration   3.00 


$7.25 

The  entire  cost  of  the  gown  for  three  years'  wear  was,  therefore, 

>.25 ;  the  gown  was  a  very  neat  and  attractive  one.  More  money 
would  have  to  be  spent  at  the  present  time  on  cloth  and  labor  in  this 
locality,  and  the  visiting  city  dressmaker  would  be  much  more  ex- 
pensive, but  the  conditions  are  the  same  for  keeping  a  gown  in 
service  without  spending  much  money. 

At  the  end  of  the  winter  and  summer  seasons  the  housewife 
should  look  over  the  family  clothing  to  see  what  can  be  used  the 
next  year,  what  renovation  or  making  over  will  be  necessary,  and 
whether  some  of  the  clothing  would  better  be  sold  to  the  junkman. 
(See  Chapter  VIII,  section  "Making  Plans"  and  above  "Putting 
Clothing  Away  for  the  Winter.") 

An  old  garment  is  apt  to  be  worn  thin  in  a  few  places  and  to  be 
in  good  condition  elsewhere.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  long 
service  will  follow  the  repairing  of  the  worn  parts,  but  the  gown 
is  often  too  good  to  throw  away.  Some  cloth  can  be  turned  to  the 
wrong  side  advantageously.  Before  positively  deciding  on  the 
manner  of  making  over  it  is  well  to  spread  out  the  material  on  a 
table  (having  marked  with  chalk  all  the  weak  places),  and  lay  a 
couple  of  patterns  on  the  fabric  to  see  which  will  require  the  least 
work  and  bring  the  best  results.  It  is  not  wise  to  select  a  pattern 
which  will  require  the  careful  overhanding  together  of  many  pieces 
of  cloth  in  order  to  have  enough  material  for  some  special  kind  of 
garment,  when  another  pattern  would  not  need  so  much  ingenious 
13 


194 


CLOTHING 


fitting  of  parts.  Nor  does  it  seem  wise  to  spend  much  money  in 
new  material  for  trimming.  Cuffs,  collar,  and  belt  of  new  material 
or  of  some  harmonious  old  material  will  give  a  sufficiently  fresh 
and  attractive  appearance  to  a  made-over  gown. 

Old  two-piece  dresses  belonging  to  a  woman  do  not  usually  cut 
well  into  a  one-piece  gown  for  a  young  girl,  but  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  the  effect  of  a  one-piece  garment  by  fastening  a  blouse  and 


A.  B.    . 

FIG.  19. — Pattern  of  boy's  trousers  cut  from  man's  trousers.      Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley 

skirt  together  at  the  waist,  and  covering  the  joining  with  a  cord  or 
soft  belt  (Fig.  15,  p.  141,  and  Fig.  21).  If  the  color  of  the  cloth  has 
changed  it  can  be  dyed  at  home  by  one  of  the  commercial  dyes  which 
are  made  for  the  purpose.  (See  Chapter  XII,  section  "Home  Dye- 
ing.") An  old  shirtwaist  and  pleated  skirt  can  be  made  into  a 
very  attractive  gown.  (See  Fig.  20  for  such  a  garment  as  it  looked 
before  it  was  made  over,  and  Fig.  21  for  the  same  gown  after  it  was 
remodelled.)  Old  grain  bags  can  be  dyed  and  made  into  an  attrac- 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION 


195 


tive  dress,  into  window  curtains,  or  into  linings  for  quilts.  One 
young  woman  made  two  summer  gowns  from  such  bags.  First,  she 
ripped  the  bags  open,  then  she  boiled  out  the  firm  names,  and  dyed 
the  material  with  soap  dyes.  One  set  of  bags  was  dyed  gray-green 
and  the  other  was  rose  color.  They  were  made  simply,  worn  alter- 
nately, washed  frequently,  and  were  a  success  during  an  entire 

FIG.  20  FIG.  21 


Fio.  20. — This  plaited  skirt  was  ripped  and  pressed  and  made  into  a  straight  simple 
skirt.  The  pieces  taken  out  of  the  sides  of  the  skirt  made  the  pieces  which  adorn  the  waist 
and  extend  below  the  belt.  See  Fig.  21.  The  dress  was  much  prettier  when  made  over  than 
it  was  originally.  Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

FIG.  21. — Showing  dress  in  Fig.  20  made  over.    Designed  by  G.  W.  Ripley. 

season  with  the  likelihood  of  carrying  over  into  the  next  summer. 
In  making  over  clothing  for  other  people  it  is  well  to  select 
simple  patterns.  The  pattern  houses  are  putting  out  conservation 
models  using  the  minimum  of  material.  The  Red  Cross  and  other 
organizations  have  good  patterns  originally  intended  for  making 
refugee  clothing.  Faded  cotton  or  wool  gowns  can  be  dyed  with 
little  trouble,  pieces  left  can  be  made  into  trimming  for  another 


196  CLOTHING 

gown  or  used  for  bags  or  cushions,  so  that  nothing  may  be  wasted. 
Fig.  19  (A  and  B)  shows  the  use  of  a  man's  worn  trousers  for  a 
boy's  trousers.  The  worn  places  indicated  in  the  diagrams  are 
avoided  in  cutting  the  garment.  A  clever  woman  made  herself  an 
entire  suit  out  of  a  man's  coat,  waistcoat,  and  two  pairs  of  trousers. 
She  made  a  skirt  out  of  the  four  trouser  legs,  arranging  the  parts 
so  well  that  pockets  covered  joinings  in  the  front.  She  made  a  belt 
from  the  waistcoat  to  make  the  coat  fit  her  better  and  look  up-to- 
date.  The  garment  was  a  complete  success.  (See  Appendix  for 
suggestions  based  on  actual  experience  for  using  old  clothing  for 
many  varieties  of  garments.) 

Men's  garments  are  useful  for  remodelling,  as  the  cloth  is  usu- 
ally strong  and  good.  Old  coats  are  apt  to  be  worn  at  the  neck, 
sleeve,  and  on  the  edges  of  the  front ;  the  trousers  are  usually  worn 
at  the  end  of  the  legs,  in  the  seat,  and  at  the  pockets ;  shirts  at  the 
neck,  elbow,  and  cuffs;  nevertheless,  there  is  apt  to  be  in  all  of 
these  garments  ample  good  material  left  for  making  over  for  smaller 
garments.  The  following  are  suggestions  of  the  ways  they  may 
be  used: 

Coat — dress  for  little  girl,  coat  for  boy. 

Cotton  shirt — shirt  for  boy,  rompers  for  child,  dress  for  girl,  waist 
for  woman. 

Wool  shirt — night  dress  for  baby,  coat  for  a  child,  shirt  for  boy,  shirtwaist 
for  a  woman. 

Htnoking  jacket  of  velvet,  washed  and  steamed,  and  used  for  girl's  jumper, 
knitting  bag,  coat  for  child. 

Dressing  gown — girl's  wrapper  or  dress — the  neck  and  sleeves  can  be  com- 
pleted with  a  crochet  or  blanket  stitch. 

Underwear — cut  down  for  younger  members  of  the  family  (the  seams  should 
be  well  finished  or  they  will  fray  out),  wash  cloths,  broom  covers, 
and  house  cloths. 

Trousers — Russian  coat  for  a  boy  or  girl,  trousers  for  a  boy,  a  little  boy's 
suit.  (See  figures  19A  and  19B.) 

Overcoats — coats  for  children,  coat  for  a  woman,  a  boy's  topcoat. 

Hosiery — to  mend  other  hose,  to  refoot  stockings,  bed  socks,  child's  stock- 
ings, scrub  cloths,  floor  mop. 

Sweater — for  a  sleeveless  under  jacket,  child's  sweater;  hand  knitted  ones 
can  be  unravelled  and  reknit  into  stockings  or  sweaters.  If  faded. 
they  can  be  redyed  or  by  knitting  into  a  different  stitch,  the  fading 
may  be  concealed. 

\\ 'omen's  Clothing: 

two-piece  or  three-piece  ones  can  be  roinbiin-il  into  one  gamx-nt   f"i 
a  younger  girl  (see  figures  20  and  21),  or  into  a  suit  for  a  boy. 


CARE,  REPAIR  AND  RENOVATION  197 

Skvrta— Circular — cape  coat,  one-piece  dress  for  a  girl,  suit  for  a  small  boy. 
Skirts  of  good  material — 

of  nool — a  Russian  blouse  for  a  woman  or  girl,  a  boy's  suit,  or  if 
the  skirt  is  worn  at  the  top,  a  yoke  can  be  put  on  and  made 
into  a  good  skirt  for  a  woman. 
of  silk — a  slip  for  a  girl  to  wear  under  a  thin  dress  or  overdress, 

short  window  curtains,  petticoats. 
of  cotton — a  voile  or  lawn  can  be  made  into  a  dress  or  slip  for  a 

child  or  a  skirt  for  a  young  girl. 

Very  old  skirts — bloomers,  interlining  for  coats,  child's  leggings. 
Waists — underwaists,   guimpes,   muslin   chemisettes;    children's   underwear 

can  be  made  of  the  good  parts. 

Muslin  undenoear — aprons,  children's  undermuslins,  guimpes,  underwaists, 

pot  holders,  middies.    Nightgowns  and  undermuslins  can  have  new 

tops  and  still  give  wear.     Nightgowns  make  good  dress  covers, 

teddy  bears,  or  blouses. 

Knitted  underwear  and  sweaters  can  be  used  as  suggested  for  men's  knitted 

clothing. 
Stockings  for  women  being  long  can  be  cut  open  and  made  into  a  shirt  for 

the  baby,  dust  cloths,  mop  covers,  sleeve  protectors. 
Coats — boys'  and  girls'  coats.  . 
Children's  clothing — cut  down  for  younger  children. 

(hid  Materials: 

Old  kid  gloves — a  waistcoat  to  wear  under  a  coat  by  opening  the  gloves 
and  machine  stitching  the  pieces  on  a  sleeveless  cotton  jacket  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose.  Shoes  for  the  baby. 

Waterproof  coats — cases  for  toilet  articles,  covers  for  travelling  bags,  bed- 
covers for  out-of-door  sleeping. 

Bags — grain,  salt,  flour,  and  other  bags  can  be  used  for  curtains,  linings, 
dresses,  waists,  and  covers  for  garments. 

Old  table  linen — for  napkins,  towels,  table  covers,  runners,  wash  cloths,  and 
a  package  of  linen  sterilized  and  put  away  for  accidents. 

Old  sheets  can  be  cut  apart  in  the  center  and  sewed  together  up  the  selvages, 
giving  almost  as  long  service  again  as  in  the  past;  sheets  can 
be  made  for  children's  beds,  aprons,  pillow  cases,  laundry  bags, 
and  smaller  pillows. 

Velvets,  silks,  laces,  feathers  and  flowers  can  be  renovated  and  used  for 
trimmings  on  hats,  or  neckwear  and  camisoles.  Old  silk  is  good 
for  polishing  furniture  or  patent  leather. 

Cotton  material — for  bloomers,  underclothing  for  children,  bags,  collars, 
cuffs,  belts. 

Km  broidery  and  laces  often  outwear  the  garment,  and  can  be  used  again  in 
blouses,  underclothing,  petticoats  and  nightgowns. 

Xeckties  of  silk — for  dress  or  hat  trimmings,  repairing  pieces  or  patch  work. 

Hmall  pieces  for  rag  carpets  or  for  the  junkman.  Divide  the  rags  into  dif- 
ferent textiles  and  colors,  and  sell  in  packages. 

(See  Appendix  for  suggestions  for  remodelling,  and  the  Front- 
ispiece for  the  appearance  of  garments  made  for  children  from 
those  of  older  people.) 


198  CLOTHING 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  main  methods  of  care  for  clothing  and  the  accessories — 

shoes,  stockings,  gloves  and  hats? 

2.  What  special  points  from  this  chapter  .would  you  use  in  a  campaign  for 

National  Thrift? 

3.  WTiat   materials    and    utensils    should    every    family    have   at   hand    in 

order  to  keep  clothing  and  its  accessories  in  good  condition  ? 

4.  What  specific  care  does  each  textile  require  and  how  should   they   be 

stored  to  keep  them  in  good  condition? 

5.  What  principles  of  renovation  and  making  over  should  become  a  habitual 

part  of  family  economy? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Look  into  modern  business  methods  of  cataloguing  and  making  inven- 

tories and  apply  to  the  care  and  repair  of  clothing  in  the  household. 
Determine  how  much  time  can  be  wisely  spent  for  this  purpose. 

2.  Consider  how  much  time  you  put  yearly  in  the  making  over  of  clothing. 

Are  the  results  justified  in  time  and  money? 

3.  In  what  way  could  the  methods  of  clothing  reclamation  developed  during 

the  war  be  applied  to  community  needs  ? 


CHAPTER  XII 

DYEING,  LAUNDRY,  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL 

Dyeing  and  Tinting. — Dyes  are  both  natural  and  artificial. 

The  natural  colors  cover:  The  vegetable  dyes,  such  as  indigo, 
madder,  logwood,  fustic  and  cutch. 

The  mineral  dyes,  such  as  Prussian  blue,  iron  buff  and  chrome 
yellow. 

The  animal  dyes,  such  as  cochineal. 

The  artificial  colors,  aniline  dyes  and  others,  are  made  from 
coal  tar. 

The  modern  dye  industry  largely  utilizes  coal  tar  products. 
Chemical  equivalents  of  madder  and  indigo  are  made  alsp  and  are 
in  general  use.  These  synthetic  colors  are  competing  successfully 
with  the  natural  dyes. 

The  industry  in  dye  chemicals  has  been  proved  to  be  of  the 
highest  service  to  a  country :  ( 1 )  The  manufacturing  interests  are 
many  of  them  dependent  upon  the  satisfactory  use  of  color;  (2)  the 
chemical  laboratories  for  dye  products  are  necessary  for  the  study 
of  serums  and  anti-toxins  and  have  yielded  some  of  the  great 
advances  for  the  control  of  disease;  and  (3)  the  dye  chemicals  are 
the  necessary  ones  for  certain  classes  of  explosives  and  for  noxious 
gases.  In  case  war  should  come  the  chemical  dye  factories  can  be 
utilized  while  otherwise  ministering  to  the  arts  of  peace.  The  fact 
that  France,  England  and  America  had  relied  on  Germany  for 
their  coal  tar  chemicals  was  the  cause  of  delay  in  quickly  preparing 
themselves  for  war  and  caused  unnecessary  loss  of  life  and  terri- 
tory. It  should  not  be  allowed  to  occur  again  unless  the  world  is 
nearer  to  "  turning  swords  into  pruning  hooks  "  than  it  is  at  pres- 
ent. The  German  dye  industry  is  gigantic.  England  and  France 
have  enacted  laws  against  the  entry  of  these  dyes  and  similar 
legislation  is  necessary  here  if  our  dye  industry  is  to  survive. 

As  previous  to  the  war  (1914)  the  United  States  had  depended 
almost  exclusively  upon  Germany  for  chemicals  and  aniline  dye- 
stuffs,  the  cutting  off  of  the  supply  was  a  serious  blow  to  our 

199 


200  CLOTHING 

manufactures.  The  stock  we  had  on  hand  gradually  lessened  and 
we  found  ourselves  in  an  increasingly  difficult  position.  The  prob- 
lem, at  first,  seemed  unsurmountable,  for  the  basic  materials  had 
to  be  American  in  origin,  supplied  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  were 
not  yet  developed. 

There  were  a  few  chemical  companies  at  work  on  aniline  dyes 
before  the  war,  and  they  had  to  struggle  against  adverse  conditions. 
The  natural  dye  industries  were  less  affected.  The  chemists  in  the 
United  States  who  understood  the  manufacturing  end  of  the  dye 
industry  were  mostly  German  subjects.  Coal  tar  distillates  and 
intermediates  were  essential,  yet  but  25  per  cent,  of  the  coke  manu- 
facture of  the  country  was  in  the  class  of  ovens  which  save  the 
by-products,  and  these  were  in  demand  by  the  Government  for  use 
in  the  production  of  explosives.  When  the  coal  tar  situation  in 
crudes  was  improved,  there  was  still  the  need  of  the  intermediates 
which  had  to  be  produced  as  a  new  industry  in  America,  the 
process  being  difficult  and  complicated.  It  was  natural  that  there 
should  be  a  shortage  of  the  best  aniline  dyes  during  the  transition 
period  and  that  many  unsatisfactory  colors  should  be  put  on  the 
market.  Consumers  knowing  little  of  the  difficulties  that  the  manu- 
facturers were  meeting  complained  of  the  lack  of  fast  colors  in  dyed 
goods,  thinking  that  it  was  carelessness  or  indifference  on  the  part 
of  our  dyers. 

In  an  incredibly  short  time,  however,  the  entire  situation  has 
changed  and  the  dye  problem  is  being  solved  by  the  energy  and 
devotion  of  chemists  and  manufacturers  of  dyestuffs.  The  work 
which  is  being  done  by  the  Dupont  Company  and  the  American 
Aniline  and  Chemical  Company  is  representative  of  the  success 
of  other  companies  which  now  supply  in  vast  quantities  fast 
American  coal-tar  dyes  made  from  American  raw  material.  The 
range  of  colors  is  increasing  and  since  the  early  fall  of  1918  two 
colors  which  have  been  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  and  greatly 
needed  have  been  developed  and  are  being  manufactured.  Dr.  Louis 
I.  Matos,  chief  chemist  of  the  National  Aniline  and  Chemical  Com- 
pany, says  in  a  letter  that  they  have  "  commenced  to  manufacture 
tw<»  fast  blues  for  wool  that  will  be  of  the  utmost  value  to  dyi-rs  of 
f?ist  shades  on  worsted  and  woolen  goods.  It  has  been  the  absence 
of  these  two  blues  that  has  been  at  the  bottom  of  many  fashionable 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  201 

shades  fading  so  rapidly/'  They  are  used  in  compound  tones  rang- 
ing from  brown  to  gray,  as  in  mole  and  taupe,  in  which  fast  blue 
and  violet  are  essential.  In  a  compound  color  it  is  necessary  that 
all  the  hues  in  the  blend  should  be  of  even  fastness.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  war  garments  in  blues  of  various  kinds  were  continu- 
ally returned  to  merchants  on  account  of  fading. 

The  Dupont  Company  has  spent  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dol- 
lars in  research  on  the  vat  dyes  and  other  fast  colors  which  are 
used  especially  on  cotton  and  on  unions  with  cotton.  These  dyes 
are  complicated  and  require  a  well  developed  industry.  The 
making  of  many  of  the  vat  dyes,  made  heretofore  in  Germany  only, 
have  been  solved  and  new  fast  dyes  have  been  discovered. 

Our  dyes  have  been  found  to  be  as  fast  to  the  various  influ- 
ences as  were  similar  ones  made  in  Germany.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  there  are  many  influences  affecting  the  fastness  of  color 
and  that  dyes  are  not  expected  to  be  fast  to  all  conditions.  A  cloth 
continually  exposed  to  light  and  weather  is  apt  to  change  from  the 
original  in  course  of  time.  The  felt  for  a  hat  is  dyed  with  the  idea 
of  being  fast  to  light  but  not  to  withstand  washing.  A  dress  print, 
on  the  other  hand,  should  be  fast  to  laundry  as  well  as  light.  When 
an  article  is  dyed  it  is  expected  that  it  will  give  satisfaction  under 
ordinary  circumstances.  Modern  methods  of  commercial  launder- 
ing are  hard  on  colored  cottons  and  even  the  home  relies  largely  on 
soap  powders  which  are  too  strong  for  some  colors  to  resist.  The 
old-fashioned  laundry  methods  were  less  destructive.  Light,  weather 
exposure,  rain,  sun,  laundry,  street  dust,  perspiration,  and  many 
soaps  are  inimical  to  dyes.  Some  colors  resist  better  than  others, 
the  vat  dyes  being  of  this  character.  The  properties  of  the  fibers 
are  factors  in  color  fastness. 

The  National  Aniline  and  Chemical  Company  Inc.  had  an 
exhibit  of  dyed  fabrics  at  the  Textile  Exposition  held  in  New  York 
in  1918  which  showed  the  relative  fastness  of  dyes  of  known 
German  origin  and  of  their  own  dyes,  in  regard  to  light,  exposure 
to  weather,  scouring,  fulling,  etc.  In  1921,  at  the  International 
Exposition  in  Boston  they  were  able  to  show  the  great  progress  that 
had  been  made  during  the  intervening  years.  Type  for  type  the 
American  dyes  are  now  equal  to  pre-war  standards.  The  Na- 
tional" dyes,  in  the  words  of  Doctor  Mates,  "possess  the  solubility, 


202  CLOTHING 

level  dyeing,  permanency  under  the  influence  of  exposure  to  light, 
and  such  other  properties  as  the  imported  dyes  possess/'  Up  to 
the  present  it  has  not  been  deemed  wise  to  attempt  to  duplicate  all 
of  the  colors  available  before  the  war.  Those  needed  by  the  textile 
and  allied  trades  are  well  developed  as  proved  by  letters  from  dyers 
of  numerous  American  mills,  and  published  by  a  well-known  trade 
journal.*  The  Benzol  Works  at  Marcus  Hook,  Pennsylvania,  be- 
longing to  the  National  Aniline  and  Chemical  Company,  is  said  to 
to  be  the  largest  and  most  completely  equipped  aniline  plant  in  the 
world.  The  present  groups  of  artificial  dyes  are : 

The  acid  colors,  principally  used  for  dyeing  wool,  but  also  em- 
ployed for  silk  fabrics.  The  level  dyeing  acid  colors  were  largely  in 
use  before  the  war  for  higher  grade  goods,  and  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing every  possible  hue  and  tone  of  color. 

Direct  colors,  frequently  termed  substantive  colors,  are  used  for 
dyeing  unmordanted  cottons  and  are  valuable  for  dyeing  unions  of 
wool  and  cotton.  A  mordant  is  a  substance  placed  on  a  fabric  before 
dyeing  to  hold  the  dye  in  a  cloth. 

Developed  colors  are  applied  to  cotton  by  the  "  three-bath  proc- 
ess" and  are,  as  a  rule,  very  fast  when  the  final  dye  bath  is 
properly  developed. 

Sulphur  colors  are  almost  exclusively  used  for  cotton.  Khaki 
for  the  army  and  navy,  corduroys,  and  stockings  are  dyed  with 
this  dye. 

Chrome  colors  give  fast  dyes  for  men's  suitings  and  for  women's 
outer  garments.  They  are  principally  used  on  wool  and  produce 
fast  colors  with  the  aid  of  salt  of  chromium  fixed  on  the  wool 
before  dyeing  (chrome  mordanted),  or  by  adding  chrome  to  the 
dye  bath,  or  the  dyed  wool  may  be  put  into  a  chrome  bath 
(after  chromed). 

Basic  colors  are  used  on  cotton  which  has  been  mordanted  with 
tannin  and  for  producing  bright  shades  upon  silk. 

Vat  dyes  are  complicated.  They  are  used  principally  on  cotton 
and  on  unions  with  cotton.  They  are  especially  fast  to  laundry 
and  light,  and  arc  inking  the  place  of  the  mordant  dyes.  They 
were  invented  in  Germany  and  have  been  made  there  almost  exclu- 
sively. The  method  of  manufacture  is  n<>\\  known  and  soon  they 
will  be  produced  in  Americi  in  tin-  quantities  needed. 

The  dye  problem  of  the  United  States  is,  therefore,  well  on  the 

*  Fiber  and  Fabric. 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  203 

way  to  complete  solution,  and  standard  dyes  will  gradually  take  the 
place  of  inferior  ones.  A  considerable  and  increasing  number  of 
dyes  formerly  imported  from  Germany  and  used  for  women's  cloth- 
ing have  been  duplicated  and  produce  identical  results  with  those 
formerly  imported.  The  class  of  dye  used  is  a  factor  in  the  expense 
of  the  cloth.  The  raw  materials  for  the  dye  may  be  cheap,  but  the 
processes  to  make  them  into  standard  colors  may  require  expensive 
apparatus,  consequently  the  dye  is  high  in  price,  which  increases  the 
cost  of  the  cloth.  A  cheap  dye  costing  but  five  to  ten  cents  per 
yard  may  be  on  a  cloth,  or  the  highest  class  of  dye  at  fourteen  to 
twenty-eight  cents  per  yard.  The  cost  of  the  fabric  naturally  will 
differ  in  the  two  cases.  The  best  of  dyes  may  be  sold  to  a  factory, 
but  if  while  there  they  are  combined  with  adulterants  to  cheapen 
them,  the  result  may  be  unsatisfactory  in  cloth  dyed  with  them. 
Men's  suitings  and  coats  and  women's  outer  coats  of  good  quality 
are  generally  colored  with  the  best  dyes,  but  less  permanent  ones 
have  been  used  for  some  of  the  fashionable  fabrics  for  women's 
clothes.  Suitings  for  women  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  The 
better  quality  is  all-wool  on  which  the  dye  holds  well;  the  second 
class  is  wool  mixed  with  cotton,  and  as  the  latter  has  not  the 
affinity  for  dye  that  wool  has,  the  colors  are  not  so  fast.  The 
newer  American  dyes,  however,  are  holding  well  in  these  union 
goods  and  are  being  improved.  The  staples  in  women's  goods  are 
found  in  blacks,  blues,  and  other  dark  colors.  Such  standards  are 
made  in  quantities,  for  they  can  always  be  sold.  Materials  in  new 
and  fashionable  colors,  on  the  contrary,  are  only  manufactured  in 
sufficient  amount  to  satisfy  an  immediate  demand,, as  heavy  losses 
may  follow  if  fashion  changes  suddenly,  such  fabrics  often  having 
to  be  redyed  to  sell.  It  is  necessary  that  the  American  dye  indus- 
try should  be  placed  on  a  permanent  basis.  Germany  has  led  the 
world  in  these  dyes  and  is  anxious  again  to  be  supreme.  France  and 
England  have  taken  special  measures  to  protect  their  beginnings  of 
a  dye  industry  and  the  United  States  must  do  so  also.  Legislation 
is  pending  for  this  purpose  and  should  be  vigorously  sustained. 

Dyes  are  applied  at  different  stages  of  the  manufacture  of 
fabrics.  With  wool,  for  instance,  the  dyeing  may  be  upon  the  raw 
stock  (dyed  in  the  wool),  or  on  the  slub  (an  early  step  in  the  spin- 
ning process)  ;  these  methods  yield  fast  and  even  colors.  Some 
Oxford  mixtures  are  slub  dyed,  for  instance,  a  black  wool  is  thus 


204  CLOTHINC 

<lv«-«l  and  is  then  combined  in  the  yarn  with  white  or  gray  yarn.  A 
variety  of  slub  dyeing  is  called  Yigoureux;  in  this  case  the  slub  is 
printed  at  close  intervals  with  a  contrasting  color  (as  a  black  on 
white).  When  the  yarn  is  spun  it  has  a  grayish  effect  which  is 
used  in  gray  mixtures.  Yarn  or  skein  dyeing  is  used  extensively  in 
all  textiles  with  satisfactory  results.  Piece  dyeing  (in  the  woven 
cloth)  is  practiced  largely  but  is  apt  to  be  less  satisfactory  than 
skein  dyeing.  Piece-dyed  materials  can  have  a  pattern  placed  on 
them  by  discharging  the  design  from  the  surface  by  chemicals  as  in 
polka-dotted  fabric.  Cross  dyeing  or  resist  is  used  when  a  vegetable 
and  animal  fiber  are  woven  into  one  piece  of  cloth,  as  in  a  wool  with  a 
pin  stripe  of  cotton,  or  pepper  and  salt  mixtures  which  combine 
cotton  and  wool  in  the  yarn.  In  these  cases  when  the  cloth  is  dyed 
with  a  wool  dye,  the  cotton  will  be  only  slightly  tinged  with  color 
and  can  be  washed  perfectly  white  without  affecting  the  color  of 
the  wool.  Another  method  of  using  the  resist  is  to  weave  the 
material  in  white  with  a  dark  or  black  stripe  and  dye  the  fabric 
later  in  a  lighter  tone.  The  dark  stripe  will  hold  its  color.  This 
is  frequently  done  in  a  cloth  with  a  black  stripe  on  a  blue  ground, 
or  a  dark  brown  stripe,  on  a  light  brown  ground.  A  modification 
of  resist  dyeing  treats  part  of  the  fabric  with  a  chemical  which  pre- 
vents it  from  taking  up  the  dye.  This  is  on  the  principle  of  the 
Batik  work  of  Java.  (See  Chapter  III,  section  "Printing.") 

The  consumer  can  be  of  the  greatest  service  if  she  will  give  the 
American  dyestuff  industry  her  loyal  support  and  will  endeavor  to 
eradicate  the  idea  that  foreign  dyes  are  better.  All  that  the  Ameri- 
can industry  needs  now  is  time  to  develop  and  the  cooperation  of 
the  public.  If  women  would  be  willing  to  depend  on  a  few  staple 
fabrics  dyed  with  the  dyes  we  now  make,  instead  of  asking  for 
fashionable  rather  than  enduring  material  in  a  large  number  of  un- 
usual colors,  they  could  help  the  situation.  They  should  accept 
willingly  the  fact  that  our  dyes  must  cost  more  than  the  German 
dyes  (Germany  is  willing  to  lower  her  prices  below  cost  to  secure 
our  trade),  for  our  labor  is  better  paid  and  our  crudes  and  inter- 
mediates are  not  yet  in  abundance.  Loyalty  to  the  country  should 
make  all  consumers  willing  to  work  for  the  permanence  of  the  in- 
dustry and  accept  the  conditions  of  development.  In  a  few  years 
tin-  problem  would  be  solved. 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  205 

Home  Dyeing. — With  the  call  to  prolong  the  life  of  clothing 
and  to  conserve  labor,  home  dyeing  and  tinting  has  become  more  im- 
portant than  heretofore.  Garments  faded  or  in  unattractive  colors 
can  thus  be  given  a  new  lease  of  life  and  make  a  new  gown  unneces- 
sary. An  amateur  can  obtain  good  results  with  home  dyeing  if  the 
directions  on  the  commercial  packages  are  followed  exactly.  Fabrics 
of  animal  origin  take  dye  differently  from  those  of  vegetable,  and 
one  or  two  kinds  of  ten  cent  package  dyes  are  especially  prepared  to 
meet  this  condition.  Dyeing  in  the  home  is  more  apt  to  be  success- 
ful on  flat  goods  than  on  elaborate  gowns  or  heavy  coats.  Fragile 
material  is  difficult  for  many  amateurs  to  handle  correctly.  If  an 
entire  garment  is  to  be  dyed,  the  seams  should  be  opened,  the  belt 
removed,  and  the  hem  at  the  bottom  let  down  that  the  color  may 
spread  more  evenly  to  all  parts,  and  if  there  is  any  shrinkage,  the 
letting  out  of  material  will  not  then  show. 

In  preparing  for  dyeing,  all  spots  should  be  removed  from  the 
fabric,  for  they  will  show  if  allowed  to  remain.  The  cloth  or  gown 
should  then  be  thoroughly  washed  in  a  solution  of  pure  soap  in 
soft  water,  and  a  little  ammonia  will  help  in  the  cleansing.  It 
sometimes  takes  two  warm  water  washings  and  two  cold  water 
rinsings  to  do  this.  If  the  garment  is  wool,  it  must  not  be  rub- 
bed, but  it  must  be  clean,  or  the  dye  will  not  be  clear,  and 
after  the  washing  the  water  must  be  removed  as  completely  as  pos- 
sible without  undue  twisting  in  the  wringing.  The  cloth  should 
be  moist  but  not  wet,  when  it  is  put  into  the  dye  bath.  The  direc- 
tions on  the  soap  dyes  do  not  require  the  garment  to  be  washed 
before  dyeing,  but  it  is  an  advantage  if  it  is  clean  before  dipping. 
Cloth  which  has  been  worn  for  a  long  time  will  look  better  if  dyed 
in  a  darker  color,  for  thus  the  faded  or  rubbed  parts  will  show  less. 
Material  which  is  but  slightly  worn  can  be  freshened  by  dipping  it 
in  a  bath  of  the  same  color.  It  is  safer  to  try  a  sample  of  the  mate- 
rial in  the  dye  before  putting  the  cloth  or  the  entire  garment  into 
the  liquid.  If  the  dye  is  not  strong  enough,  the  dyestuff  can  be 
increased;  if  too  dark,  it  can  be  weakened  with  water.  Union 
goods  such  as  cotton  and  wool  are  more  difficult  to  dye  successfully 
than  cloth  made  of  one  fiber.  A  wool  dye  on  a  cotton  and  wool 
fabric  may  leave  the  cotton  untouched,  but  a  cotton  dye  will  color 
wool,  for  it  takes  the  color  more  readily  than  will  cotton.  The 


206  CLOTHING 

former  fact  is  made  use  of  in  commercial  cross  dyeing  when  union 
goods  are  dipped  and  the  dye  is  left  on  one  fiber  and  not  on  the 
other,  as  in  pin-striped  cloth,  which  is  woven  of  wool  with  the 
stripe  of  cotton.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  white  goods  will  take 
any  color,  but  dark  goods  will  only  take  their  own  hue,  a  darker 
tone,  or  black.  A  lustrous  satin  loses  some  of  its  brightness  in 
home  dyeing  and  pongee  and  other  fabrics  made  of  wild  silk  are  apt 
to  look  oily.  Cotton  goods  with  much  dressing  should  have  it 
boiled  out  before  putting  the  fabric  into  the  dye.  If  more  than 
one  kettle  of  the  same  dye  has  to  be  used,  the  quantities  of  water 
and  dye  must  be  measured  accurately  or  the  color  will  not  be  the 
same.  Two  smooth  sticks  (broom  handles)  are  needed  to  lift  the 
material  in  the  dye  bath  that  the  color  may  be  evenly  distributed. 
The  procedure  of  dyeing  is  about  as  follows,  but  the  amateur 
should  do  exactly  as  stated  on  the  commercial  package  she 
has  selected: 

1.  Dissolve  the  dye  in  a  cupful  of  warm  water,  stirring  constantly 
until  it  boils. 

2.  Strain  the  dye  through  a  clean  cloth  that  any  adulterations 
may  be  removed. 

3.  Have  water  in  the  dye  kettle  warm  and  stir  in  the  dye.     (The 
kettle  should  be  amply  large,  absolutely  clean,  and  free  from  rust; 
a  wash  boiler  is  often  used.) 

4.  Put  the  moist  cloth  or  garment  into  the  dye  and  stir  con- 
stantly with  the  smooth  sticks.     (The  dye  must  get  to  all  parts  or 
the  cloth  will  be  streaked.) 

5.  Boil  the  allotted  time,  having  a  sample  of  the  cloth  in  the 
dye  which  can  be  taken  out  to  test  the  color. 

6.  Take  out  the  sample  to  see  if  the  color  is  right  (wet  cloth 
will  look  much  darker  than  when  dry).     Wash  the  sample  out  in 
water  to  see  if  the  color  is  fast. 

7.  When  the  color  and  fastness  are  satisfactory  lift  out  the  cloth 
or  garment  with  the  sticks,  rinse,  wring  out,  dry  and  press.     A 
wringer  can  be  used  for  flat  goods. 

Home  Tinting. — Tinting  like  bluing  is  not  permanent,  but  it 
is  useful  to  restore  a  slightly  faded  garment  to  its  original  or  to  a 
deeper  color.  A  Georgette  waist,  a  «>tton  voile  gown,  silk  or  cot- 
ton lingerie,  or  a  blouse  can  be  dipped  into  the  desired  color  after 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  207 

washing.  The  tint  will  last  until  it  is  washed  again.  Commercial 
tinting  powders  give  excellent  results;  colored  crepe  tissue  paper 
can  be  soaked  in  water  and  give  tinting  liquid,  and  coffee  or  tea 
will  give  a  good  ecru.  The  process  is  very  simple — a  teaspoonful 
or  more  of  the  color  is  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  warm  water.  The 
garment  already  clean  is  dipped  up  and  down  in  it  until  the  needed 
tone  is  obtained.  If  a  very  deep  tone  is  desired,  the  garment  can 
be  dried,  moistened,  and  dipped  again.  Commercial  tints  which 
clean  while  they  color  are  also  on  the  market. 

Home  Laundering. — Commercial  laundries  are  rapidly  taking 
the  place  of  home  work  in  large  cities.  This  saves  the  home  from  a 
tiresome  occupation,  but  hard  water,  soap  powders,  chemical  disin- 
fectants and  bleaches,  and  the  careless  use  of  machine  ironers  are 
causing  more  destruction  of  clothing  than  is  dreamed  of  by  the 
public.  The  steam  laundries  are  safer  for  health  than  those  in  the 
small  tenement  house  or  in  the  so-called  "home  hand  laundry." 
Every  housekeeper  should  know  the  conditions  under  which  her 
clothing  is  being  laundered  in  order  to  safeguard  health  and  keep 
garments  from  unnecessary  deterioration.  The  scientific  launder- 
ing of  clothing,  including  spot  removal,  would  require  an  elaborate 
description  of  methods  of  procedure  which  cannot  be  undertaken  in 
a  book  of  this  kind.  For  those  who  wish  further  information  on 
this  subject,  many  books  and  reports  are  available,  such  as  "  Laun- 
dering," by  Balderston ;  "  The  Laundry,"  by  Rose,  Cornell  Reading 
Course ;  Chapter  XIV  in  "  Textiles,"  by  Woolman  and  McGowan ; 
"  The  Removal  of  Stains  from  Clothing  and  Other  Textiles/'  by 
H.  B.  Lang-,  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  861,  and  "Housewifery,"  by 
L.  R.  Balderston,  Lippincott. 

Some  simple  essentials  of  home  laundering  are  given  below. 
These  can  be  practiced  by  the  home  woman  in  a  small  kitchen 
laundry  or  even  in  a  room  in  a  city  apartment  house.  With  the 
desire  to  save  labor  and  money,  many  women  .and  girls  are  washing 
out  waists  and  underclothing  in  their  own  homes.  This  need  not 
be  either  a  difficult  or  lengthy  performance  if  the  clothing  is  made 
of  good  cloth  and  is  simple  in  design.  A  busy  business  woman 
should  not  attempt  to  launder  all  of  her  clothing  in  her  room,  as 
she  needs  rest  and  relaxation  after  her  long  week  of  work,  but  if  she 
can,  at  intervals,  wash  out  her  fine  lingerie  or  silk  waists  herself, 


208  CLOTHING 

she  will  find  she  can  save  much  money  and  prolong  the  life  of  the 
garment.  Clothing  should  be  mended  before  laundering,  for  the 
garments  will  look  better  if  this  is  done,  and  if  it  is  not  done  they 
will  be  apt  to  tear  further  during  the  various  washing  processes. 

Definite  things  must  be  considered  and  attended  to  if  the  cloth- 
ing is  to  look  well  after  it  is  washed.  There  must  not  be  such  a 
feeling  of  haste  that  too  strong  soaps  are  used.  The  water  should 
be  clean  and  soft.  If  it  is  hard  washing  soda  or  borax  can  be  added 
to  it.  Borax  in  moderate  quantity  is  not  injurious  to  fabrics. 
Washing  soda  must  be  used  sparingly;  it  injures  wool,  silk,  and 
colored  fabrics.  There  must  be  a  free  use  of  water  in  both  washing 
and  rinsing  and  plenty  of  good  soap  is  essential.  Soap  solutions 
are  much  used  for  they  readily  make  a  lather.  Some  of  the  com- 
mercial ones  are  injurious,  but  when  made  of  a  good  white  soap 
satisfactory  work  can  be  accomplished.  The  yellow  soaps  have  resin 
in  them  and  are  apt  to  make  white  clothes  yellow.  Soap  bark  can 
be  used  in  place  of  soap  in  washing  woolens  and  other  textiles. 
Machine  methods  of  forcing  water  through  soiled  clothing  rather 
than  rubbing  on  the  washboard,  and  also  the  sterilization  of  it,  are 
worth  considering.  If  electricity  is  available,  a  mechanical  washer 
can  be  purchased  to  save  time.  It  is  possible  also  to  buy  at  small 
expense  a  washer  which  can  be  easily  worked  by  hand.  If  the 
clothing  has  dirty  spots  on  it  which  are  not  removed  by  the  mechan- 
ical washer,  they  can  be  separately  rubbed  with  soap.  Soap  is  a 
sterilizing  agent,  but  boiling  may  be  necessary  in  addition.  Wash- 
ing soda,  ammonia,  and  washing  powders  all  assist  in  the  removal 
of  dirt,  but  must  be  used  intelligently.  Fresh  air  and  sunlight  will 
not  only  dry  the  clothing  well,  but  will  whiten  and  sterilize.  If 
there  has  been  illness  a  method  of  sterilization  recommended  by 
doctors  must  be  used.  Each  textile  must  be  given  the  special  care 
its  properties  require,  that  the  garment  made  of  it  may  be  kept  in 
its  most  enduring  condition.  (See  Chapter  XI,  section  "Trxti It- 
Requirements.")  Soiled  clothing  should  not  be  retained  long  in  the 
house,  but  should  be  washed  at  least  weekly. 

Before  beginning  to  wash  the  very  dirty  clothes  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest,  the  colored  from  the  white,  and  the  dark  from 
light  colors.  It  is  not  well  to  wash  garments  differing  in  color  in 
the  same  water,  for  the  colors  often  bleed  and  spoil  other  garments. 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  209 

If  there  has  been  a  member  of  the  family  with  a  cold  in  the  head 
the  handkerchiefs  should  be  sterilized  and  washed  by  themselves. 
White  clothes  other  than  wool  or  silk  underwear,  if  soaked  over 
night  or  for  a  few  hours  in  warm  soapsuds  before  they  are  washed 
will  not  need  so  much  rubbing.     Colored  clothing,  which  is  fast  in 
color,  may  be  soaked  if  very  dirty.     Very  soiled  articles,  body 
linen,  and  table  linen  and  towels  should  not  be  washed  together, 
but  in  separate  tubs.     If  it  is  necessary,  one  of  the  alkalies,  such 
as  ammonia  or  borax,  can  be  put  in,  or  kerosene  can  be  used  as  a 
grease  solvent.    After  soaking  the  garments  can  be  wrung  out  from 
the  water  in  which  they  have  been  soaked,  and  then  washed  in 
plenty  of  warm,  soapy  water.    A  board  may  be  necessary  on  which 
to  rub  the  soiled  places,  whether  a  mechanical  washer  is  used  or  not. 
The  washer,  however,  saves  a  great  deal  of  heavy  rubbing  and  wear 
and  tear  on  the  garment.     The  colored  dresses,  the  stockings,  and 
the  wool  flannels  must  be  washed  by  themselves  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  textiles  of  which  they  are  made.     (See  Chap- 
ters II  to  V.  inclusive,  section  "Properties.")     If  the  water  be- 
comes soiled,  fresh  hot  water  must  be  added  from  time  to  time.     It 
is  customary  to  boil  white  cotton  garments  in  order  to  sterilize  them 
as  bacteria  increase  rapidly  on  soiled  cottons.     The  clothing  should 
be  clean  before  it  is  boiled.    The  water  should  be  in  light  suds  and 
the  boiler  itself  should  be  absolutely  clean.    The  final  rinsing  should 
be  in  hot  water  to  dissolve  soap  and  grease  scum.     The  clothes 
should  not  stand  in  the  water,  but  be  lifted  up  and  down  and  then 
taken  out,  passed  through  the  wringer,  and  after  bluing  or  tinting 
and  starching,  dried  in  the  air  and  sunlight,  unless  the  color  in  a 
garment  will  fade,  in  which  case  drying  in  the  shade  is  better.    The 
depth  of  tint  in  bluing  or  tinting  can  be  made  as  desired,  and 
should  be  developed  in  the  water  before  the  clothes  are  added.    Blue 
can  be  bought  in  ball  form  or  in  solution.    Ball  blues  are  insoluble 
and  will  spot  the  clothing  unless  squeezed  through  a  bag  into  the 
water.     Other  tints  can  be  purchased  in  powder  or  soap  form  and 
should  be  put  into  the  water  until  the  color  desired  is  obtained. 
The  soap  used  in  washing  should  be  well  rinsed  from  garments 
before  any  tint  is  applied. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  starch  which  are  used  in  raw  or 
cooked  form.     The  starching  liquid  should  be  made  of  the  con- 
14 


210  CLOTHING 

sistency  desired  and  the  garments  dipped  in  it;  those  that  are  to  be 
very  stiff  should  be  starched  first,  as  the  moisture  in  the  articles 
weakens  the  solution.  Starched  cotton  clothing  keeps  clean  longer 
than  the  unstarched,  but  the  garment  should  not  be  laid  away  for  a 
long  time  with  the  stiffening  in  it. 

After  the  clothing  is  dry  it  should  be  taken  from  the  line  and 
laid  in  a  basket  where  it  can  be  kept  clean.  Some  time  before 
ironing  each  article  should  be  dampened ;  overnight  is  long  enough, 
for  damp  clothing  will  quickly  mildew.  A  clean  whisk  broom  is 
good  for  a  sprinkler.  The  clothes  should  not  be  too  wet  and  should 
be  rolled  and  packed  closely  ready  for  ironing.  If  the  garments 
are  hung  straight  on  the  line,  folded  when  taken  down,  and  pulled 
into  shape  before  pressing,  it  will  facilitate  ironing.  The  ironing 
should  be  along  the  warp.  A  sleeve  board  will  help  in  the  press- 
ing of  waists  and  sleeves;  trimmings  and  ruffles  should  be  ironed 
before  the  body  of  the  garment.  Linens  should  have  a  good,  long, 
firm  stroke  with  an  iron  that  is  not  too  hot.  Hand  ironing  is  better 
for  the  life  of  clothing  than  machine  pressers. 

Washing  Special  Articles. — -The  water  should  not  be  too  hot 
in  washing  stockings,  and  there  should  be  plenty  of  soap  in  solu- 
tion, but  soap  should  not  be  rubbed  on  them.  A  little  borax  in  the 
water  softens  it.  The  stockings  should  be  turned  wrong  side  out, 
washed  quickly,  and  rubbed  briskly  between  the  hands.  They  can 
be  rinsed  a  couple  of  times  in  clean  water  with  or  without  borax  in 
the  first  water  and  squeezed  in  the  hand,  pulled  into  shape,  and 
hung  on  the  line  with  the  toe  up  as  they  dry  better  that  way.  Ironing 
is  apt  to  injure  the  color  in  hosiery,  especially  if  the  iron  is  very 
hot.  Black  cotton  stockings  frequently  become  grayish  from  the 
daily  washing  out  (see  Chapter  XI,  section  "  Stockings  ")  added 
to  the  weekly  wash,  but  as  the  dye  situation  in  the  United  States 
becomes  stable  and  fast  colors  are  developed,  this  <li!li< -uity  will  un- 
doubtly  be  lessened.  (See  section  "Dyeing  and  Tinting,"  above.) 

Corsets  can  be  scrubbed  with  a  small  stiff  brush  and  soapy 
water  and  kept  in  good  condition  for  a  longer  time  than  if  sent  to 
the  commercial  laundry  or  to  the  cleaners.  If  the  corset  is  made  of 
<rnoi|  material,  has  bones  that  will  not  rust,  and  has  IKMMI  worn  in 
alternation  with  another  one,  it  can  be  worn  for  years,  if  raivl'iilly 
washed  and  kept  in  repair. 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  211 

For  colored  cottons  the  water  should  not  be  too  hot  and  some 
good  white  soap  should  be  in  solution.  The  means  used  in  setting 
the  color  depends  on  the  character  of  the  dye.  It  is  difficult  at 
present  to  state  the  best  method  of  setting  colors  in  manufactured 
goods,  for  as  yet  many  varieties  of  dyes  are  in  use,  some  of  which 
are  entirely  unreliable.  The  wisest  procedure  at  present  is  to  take 
extreme  care  in  laundering,  drying,  and  ironing.  Directions  in  the 
past  were  somewhat  as  follows,  and  still  apply  to  some  of  the  older 
dyes:  Green  and  purple  can  be  set  by  alum;  blues  by  vinegar; 
lavenders  by  sugar  of  lead  (poison)  ;  and  blues  by  salt.  American 
dyes  will  naturally  take  the  place  of  foreign  ones  and  rules  for  set- 
ting colors  will  be  announced  if  these  are  necessary,  but  the  promise 
is  that  careful  methods  of  laundry  will  be  all  that  is  necessary. 
(See  section  "Dyeing  and  Tinting,"  above.) 

A  light-weight  colored  cotton  apt  to  lose  its  color  or  appear- 
ance if  laundered  can  be  renewed,  if  it  is  not  too  soiled,  by  spong- 
ing on  the  wrong  side  with  starch  or  gum  arabic.  water,  followed  by 
a  good  pressing. 

For  washing  silk  blouses  and  underwear,  baby  cotton  and 
woolens,  blankets,  challie  and  other  fine  wool  clothing,  shave  a  cake 
of  white  soap  or  use  the  prepared  flakes.  The  soap  is  put  in  a  clean 
basin  or  tub  and  hot  water  poured  over  it  until  the  lather  is  soft 
and  full,  cool  water  is  added  until  the  water  is  not  too  hot  for  the 
hand  to  be  held  in  it.  The  garment  is  put  in  and  dipped  up  and 
down  until  clean ;  it  is  then  rinsed.  It  must  not  be  wrung  out,  but 
only  squeezed  lightly.  Blue,  tea,  crepe  paper,  and  commercial  tints 
in  any  desirable  color  can  be  added  to  the  final  rinsing  water. 
These  colors  are  not  fast,  but  will  last  until  the  garment  is  again 
washed.  Sweaters  should  be  stretched  into  shape  before  attempt- 
ing to  press  them.  If  laid  flat  on  a  table  they  need  no  pressing. 
Xapped  goods  after  washing  can  be  rubbed  with  flannel  to  soften 
the  surface.  Velveteen  and  velvet  can  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water  and  steamed  before  they  are  dry.  A  hot  iron  over  which  the 
back  of  the  wet  velvet  can  be  used  for  steaming  it,  or  a  wet 
cloth  can  be  laid  on  the  iron  and  the  velvet  held  above  that,  or  steam 
from  a  tea  kettle  can  be  allowed  to  pass  through  the  velvet. 

The  commercial  laundry  is  careless  with  the  silk  ribbons  that 
are  inserted  in  underwear.  The  money  spent  in  buying  ribbon  to 


212  CLOTHING 

take  the  place  of  that  which  is  destroyed  or  lost,  and  the  time  taken 
in  putting  in  new  ones,  become  a  considerable  item.  The  majority 
of  women  tie  from  three  to  six  strings  every  morning.  It  would  be 
a  step  in  thrift  so  to  make  underwear  that  ribbons  are  unnecessary 
or  to  buy  only  the  most  enduring  lingerie  tape  and  fasten  it  in  the 
middle  of  the  back  of  the  garment  with  very  short  ends  protruding 
from  each  opening  in  the  front,  so  that  the  machine  ironers  will  not 
catch  them. 

Other  Treatments. — Bleaching  of  cotton  and  linen  can  be 
done  by  water,  air,  and  sunshine,  but  it  takes  time.  Chloride  of 
lime  and  lemon  and  salt  can  be  used.  Javelle  water  and  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  are  useful  bleaches.  Methods  of  bleaching  should  be 
studied,  as  garments  may  be  ruined  by  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
action  of  strong  bleaches. 

Wrinkles  can  be  steamed  out  of  gowns  by  drawing  a  bathtub 
or  wash  boiler  full  of  very  hot  water  and  hanging  the  gown  above 
it,  or  steaming  with  a  tea  kettle. 

Dry  cleaning  is  done  by  dipping  the  garment  in  benzine.  It  is 
cleaned  without  shrinking  and  sterilized  at  the  same  time. 

Cottons  and  linens  should  be  shrunk  before  they  are  made  up  or 
they  may  shrink  in  both  directions  in  the  first  wash,  and  may  be 
too  small  to  wear  again.  (See  Chapter  III,  section  "  Cotton  Fin- 
ishing/') The  new  cloth  can  be  laid  in  water  which  is  first  hot  and 
then  cold.  It  should  be  pressed  before  making  up.  It  is  possible 
in  many  cases  to  estimate  the  possible  amount  of  shrinkage  and 
make  the  garment  large  enough  to  allow  for  it  instead  of  shrinking 
the  material  before  making. 

Sponging  and  pressing  are  necessary  for  some  wool  cloths  and 
pongees  to  keep  them  from  spotting  in  the  rain.  This  is  often  done 
at  the  factory  or  at  the  store.  In  making  over  old  cloth,  sponging 
and  pressing  will  frequently  make  it  look  like  new.  It  may  be  done 
by  laying  an  evenly  wet  cotton  cloth  over  the  material  and  pressing 
it  with  a  fairly  hot  iron. 

Removing  Spots  and  Stains. — Spots  and  stains  should  be 
taken  out  of  garments  before  they  are  laundered,  otherwise  the 
soap,  hot  water,  and  pressing  may  set  the  mark  permanently. 
Woolens  should  be  well  brushed  before  removing  a  spot.  It  is 
necessary,  however,  to  know  the  character  of  a  stain  before  deciding 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  213 

how  to  proceed,  as  by  using  the  wrong  remedy  the  opposite  effect 
from  the  one  desired  often  results. 

There  are  many  agents  for  spot  removal;  gasoline  is  used  for 
grease  or  dirt  stains  on  wool  and  silk.  A  thick  pad  of  clean  white 
cloth  or  blotting  paper  can  be  put  under  the  place  and  another 
clean  cloth  used  to  rub  the  gasoline  gently  on  the  spot  in  a  circular 
motion  from  outside  toward  its  center  to  keep  a  ring  from  forming. 
Salt  is  added  to  the  gasoline  by  many  and  brushed  off  after  the 
latter  has  evaporated.  Chloroform  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
stain  eradicators,  but  is  expensive.  Ether,  alcohol,  carbon  tetra- 
chloride,  benzine,  and  turpentine  are  in  constant  use  as  solvents  for 
grease.  Hydrochloric  (muriatic),  acetic,  and  oxalic  acids,  Javelle 
water,  and  the  alkalies — ammonia,  borax,  and  washing  soda — have 
cleansing  or  stain-removing  qualities.  Dirt  and  soiled  spots  can  be 
removed  from  garments  which  dp  not  easily  lose  their  color  by  the 
solvents  named,  but  garments  of  delicate  color  and  texture  should 
have  such  absorbents  as  French  chalk,  magnesia,  and  corn  starch 
used  upon  them.  Ammonia  and  water  are  helpful  in  cleaning 
woolens.  Light  silk  waists,  scarfs,  and  dainty  neckwear  can  be 
cleaned  in  gasoline  or  benzine  by  giving  them  successive  dippings 
in  the  clean  liquid.  It  is  generally  true  that  animal  fibers  (wool 
and  silk)  are  injured  by  alkalies,  and  that  vegetable  fibers  (cotton 
and  linen)  are  more  affected  by  acids.  A  few  simple  remedies  for 
constantly  recurring  stains  are  given  below,  but  for  adequate  discus- 
sion of  the  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  one  of  the  many  books 
and  pamphlets  dealing  with  spot  removal,  especially  <e  Removal  of 
Stains  from  Clothing  and  Other  Textiles,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
861,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  A  few  books  are  mentioned 
above  under  section  "  Home  Laundering,"  and  the  subject  is  treated 
in  many  books  and  pamphlets  listed  in  the  Bibliography. 

Fruit,  chocolate,  tea,  and  coffee  stains  on  white  table  linen  when 
fresh  can  be  removed  by  pouring  hot  water  on  the  material  held 
tightly  over  a  basin.  The  water  should  come  down  with  some 
force.  When  the  stains  are  dry,  soaking  them  in  Javelle  water 
diluted  with  hot  water  will  often  help.  The  cloth  must  be  rinsed 
afterward  in  boiling  water  and  dilute  ammonia. 

Grease. — Gasoline,  benzine,  chloroform,  etc.,  are  of  service  in 
removing  grease  from  collars  of  wool  or  silk  fabrics.  Hot  water 


214  CLOTHING 

with  or  without  soap  is  used  also  when  the  stain  is  fresh  and  the 
material  can  stand  water.  Brown  paper  laid  over  the  soiled  place 
and  pressed  with  a  warm  iron  will  remove  many  grease  spots. 
French  chalk  or  magnesia  can  be  placed  thickly  on  the  stain  and 
left  for  a  day  and  then  brushed  off;  sometimes  several  applications 
are  necessary  to  remove  it  completely.  Wagon  grease  can  be  rubbed 
with  lard  and  then  washed.  For  a  small  fresh  spot  of  grease  from 
ice  cream  or  from  milk,  rubbing  with  the  white  edges  of  news- 
paper is  often  efficacious-,  for  the  friction  softens  the  grease  and  the 
paper  absorbs  it. 

Mildew  is  a  microscopic  plant  like  mold.  It  frequently  attacks 
cotton  and  linen  when  they  are  stored  in  a  damp  place.  If  left  on 
the  garment  it  will  destroy  both  color  and  material.  If  very  fresh 
wash  in  cold  water  and  place  the  article  in  the  sunshine.  On 
white  goods  it  is  said  that  to  rub- lard  on  the  spot  and  spread  the 
garment  in  the  sun  for  several  days  will  take  it  away.  Old  mildew 
stains  are  hard  to  remove.  Use  Javelle  water  or  potassium  per- 
manganate on  white  cotton  or  linen  goods,  then  wash  with  hot  water. 

Ink  is  not  easy  to  remove,  for  it  is  made  of  many  different  in- 
gredients and  it  is  puzzling  to  know  what  to  use  at  any  one  time. 
When  fresh  soaking  in  milk  will  sometimes  help,  but  has  to  be  re- 
peated many  times  in  some  cases.  As  soon  as  the  milk  becomes  dis- 
colored it  should  be  drained  off  and  fresh  milk  added.  Color  will 
not  be  removed,  nor  silk  and  wool  injured  by  the  milk  treatment. 
When  the  spot  is  old,  oxalic  acid  can  be  applied  to  white  materials ; 
then  the  material  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes  and  rinsed 
out  with  fresh  water.  Salts  of  lemon,  oxalic  acid,  and  ink  eradica- 
tors  are  the  usual  remedies  for  white  cotton  or  linen  goods,  but 
cannot  be  used  on  colors. 

Pitch  and  tar  are  removable  by  rubbing  with  lard  or  other 
grease  and  then  washing  with  soap  and  water  to  get  rid  of  the  grease. 

Greasy  overalls  can  be  cleaned  by  washing  with  soft  soap  made 
from  ashes  of  hard  wood,  or  by  soap  and  dissolved  washing  soda. 

Blood  stains. — If  the  stain  is  fresh,  starch  moistened  with  water 
and  placed  on  the  spot  will  absorb  it,  but  often  the  starch  must  be 
applied  several  times.  The  spot  can  be  washed  in  cool  water  and 
then  rubbed  with  naphtha  soap  and  soaked  in  warm  water.  Am- 
monia is  also  efficacious. 


DYEING,  LAUNDRY  AND  SPOT  REMOVAL  215 

Scorch  can  sometimes  be  taken  out  with  sunlight  if  the  article 
is  moistened  and  exposed  to  the  rays. 

Perspiration  discoloration  can  sometimes  be  removed  by  wash- 
ing the  place  in  soapsuds  and  water  and  exposing  to  sunlight;  if  this 
does  not  succeed  the  remedy  for  rust  can  be  tried. 

Bust  can  be  removed  by  soaking  in  oxalic  acid  for  a  few  minutes 
and  rinsing  thoroughly,  then  wash  with  soapsuds. 

Grass  stains  can  be  removed  by  milk,  alcohol,  or  ammonia. 

Fresh  paint  can  be  eradicated  by  sponging  with  alcohol  or  tur- 
pentine, or  washing  with  yellow  kitchen  soap  and  water.  If  on  a 
delicate  color,  chloroform  can  be  used  to  better  advantage.  If  the 
spot  is  dry,  softening  with  vaseline  and  rubbing  with  vinegar  can  be 
tried.  Amyl  acetate  (suffocating  to  breathe)  removes  old  hard 
paint  spots. 

Acid  stains  can  be  removed  by  alkalies,  for  instance,  lemon  spots 
can  be  taken  out  with  dilute  ammonia,  or  wine  stains  with  salt. 

Black  cloth  which  is  spotted  with  mud  can  be  cleaned  with  a 
potato  cut  in  half  and  rubbed  on  the  place,  or  carbonate  of  soda 
(washing  soda)  can  be  applied  with  flannel. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  sources  are  there  of  dye  stuffs? 

2.  What  is  the  procedure  for  dyeing  a  garment  at  home? 

3.  How  proceed  in  laundering  light  colored  cottons? 

4.  What  main  factors  in  the  home  laundry? 

5.  What  are  main  factors  in  the  removal  of  spots  ? 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  How  can  the  consumer  help   in   the  development  of   an  American  dye 

industry?   Is  it  worth  while?    Give  reasons  for  opinion. 

2.  Why  should  we  not  expect  dyes  in  a  cloth  to  be  fast  to  all  influences? 

List  the  many  ways  in  which  color  may  be  changed  in  manufacture 
and  in  wear. 

3.  Try  out  some  of  the  recipes  for  spot  removal,  note  results  and  try  to 

improve  upon  the  method. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU 

"  Every  woman  who  practices  strict  economy  puts  herself  in  the  ranks 
of  those  who  serve  the  nation." — Woodrow  Wilson. 

Community  Centers. — The  service  Home  Economics  can  give 
in  Community  Centers  was  clearly  demonstrated  during  the  war. 
In  rural  and  urban  localities  in  the  United  States  intensive  work 
was  done  in  food  conservation  which  was  soon  followed  by  training 
in  other  subjects  connected  with  the  life  of  the  home.  Farm  and 
Farm  Home  Bureaus  have  been  organized  for  many  years  and  are 
successful  agencies  for  improving  farms  and  farm  homes,  but  the 
urban  conservation  centers  began  their  service  under  the  War 
Emergency  Bill,  when  approximately  one  thousand  additional 
workers  were  appointed  for  demonstration  and  extension  work  to 
add  to  the  six  thousand  persons  already  on  duty  in  the  Agricultural 
Extension  Service.  The  numbers  of  citizens  who  have  come  to  these 
centers  for  help  indicate  the  great  service  which  can  be  given  to  the 
home  by  them,  and  shows  that  the  permanent  establishment  of 
Home  Bureaus  would  be  a  boon  to  the  nation.  When  the  war  came 
to  an  end  many  centers  were  offering  training  and  practical  demon- 
stration in  foods,  clothing,  gardening,  use  of  fuel,  and  general 
household  thrift.  The  American  born  and  the  foreigner  alike  took 
advantage  of  the  help  offered,  for  they  found  the  graphic  teaching 
gave  them  direct  assistance  and  the  spirit  of  the  work  made  them 
feel  free  and  inclined  to  come  again.  The  closing  of  some  of  these 
activities  after  the  war  indicated  that  a  valuable  factor  in  teaching 
better  American  home  life  was  passing.  An  effort  to  increase  this 
kind  of  community  service  has  followed,  in  which  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  will  take  the  lead  and  give  its  aid  to 
both  the  city  and  the  rural  neighborhood. 

The  General  Federation  of  Clubs  and  the  States  Relation  Ser- 
vice of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department  are  urging  the 
importance  of  clothing  and  textile  conservation  as  a  part  of  their 
programs.  (See  Chapter  IX,  section  "Conditions,"  etc.)  The 
216 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  217 

Farm  and  Home  Bureaus  can  give  efficient  help  to  this  movement 
whenever  thrift  in  clothing  is  included  in  their  service.  Xew 
centers  should  be  opened.  Budget  Bureaus  or  Home  Economics 
Bureaus  have  been  started  at  several  places,  as  in  the  banks  in 
Cleveland,  Xew  York  and  Pittsburgh.  As  these  bureaus  develop 
and  furnish  information  on  all  aspects  of  household  and  personal 
economy  they  will  be  able,  doubtless,  to  undertake  as  well  a  clothing 
information  service.  Clothing  expenditures,  indeed,  offer  perhaps 
the  best  opportunity  for  saving  for  the  average  individual  or  family. 
Such  centers  should  be  opened  both  as  community  undertakings  and 
by  business  interests  wherever  practicable. 

Information  centers,  sometimes  called  "personal  service  bu- 
reaus/' have  been  opened  by  a  dozen  of  the  leading  department 
stores  of  the  country  and  these  bureaus  serve  customers  and  others 
on  matters  of  textiles  and  clothing  as  well  as  other  subjects.  When 
conducted  under  high  standards  they  become  in  effect  centers  of 
community  service  for  thrift  and  economy.. 

The  following  material  is  offered  to  assist  those  who  wish  to 
organize  clothing  conservation  work.  The  chart  (see  page  3 
"Textile  and  Clothing  Interests"),  shows  the  field  as  it  was  developed 
at  the  Bureau  on  the  Boston  Common. 

The  Aim  and  Work  of  a  Clothing  Bureau. — The  aim: 

1.  To  train  the  consumer  to  INTELLIGENCE  in  her  relation  to 

the  textile  factory,  the  clothing  workroom,  the  retail  trade,  and  in 

selection  of  textiles,  ready-to-wear  clothing,  and  garment  accessories. 

2.  To   increase    THRIFT   in   the   home   by   teaching   clothing 

economy. 

3.  To  make  clothing  a  factor  in  efficiency  by  showing  how 
HEALTH  can  be  conserved  through  it. 

The  work:  A  Clothing  Information  Bureau  should  be: 

1.  A  place  where  information  on  textiles  and  clothing  can  be 
kept  on  file,  where  questions  on  these  subjects  can  be  answered  with 
discrimination,  and  helpful  advice  can  be  given. 

2.  A  demonstration  center  and  place  of  rallies  and  exhibits  where 
thrift  is  taught  by  concrete  measures. 

3.  A  rendezvous  for  lectures,  conferences,  and  discussions  on 
clothing  economics. 


218  CLOTHING 

4.  A  reading  room  for  those  desiring  knowledge  on  textiles  and 
clothing,  where  books,  magazines,  reports,  and  pamphlets  can  be 
consulted  and  files  of  up-to-date  material  are  available.     School 
children  should  be  encouraged  to  come  to  such  a  bureau  for  mate- 
rial to  use  in  written  work,  and  students  of  clothing  economics 
should  be  given  help  and  direction. 

5.  A  center  to  display  and  distribute  printed  materials,  to  send 
out  travelling  exhibits  on  phases  of  the  work  for  clubs,  classes  for 
foreign  women,  and  study  groups,  and  where  lessons  on  the  various 
phases  of  garment  and  hat  construction  and  repair  can  be  given. 

6.  A  clearing  house  for  various  agencies  which  can  aid  directly 
or  give  advice  on  clothing  questions,  such  as  courses  of  clothing  and 
textile  instruction  in  various  schools,  or  the  club  and  demonstration 
work  in  the  Home  or  Farm  Bureaus;  where  addresses  are  kept  of 
lecturers  or  demonstrators  or   of  textile  factories  which  >can  be 
visited  or  where  exhibits  can  be  obtained. 

7.  An  advisory  bureau  for  salvage  and  thrift  work. 

The  Clothing  Facts  Bureau. — A  Clothing  Information  Bureau 
was  opened  in  Boston  in  the  fall  of  1917  as  a  part  of  the  War  Ser- 
vice Work  of  The  Women's  City  Club  of  that  city.  A  Food  Facts 
Bureau  had  been  organized  a  few  months  before,  and  the  success 
called  for  further  devolpment,  consequently  "  Clothing  Facts  "  was 
added  in  November,  1917.  "Garden  Facts"  and  "Fuel  Facts" 
followed  in  1918  and  "Salvage"  in  1919.  The  city  of  Boston 
housed  these  various  activities  on  Boston  Common  in  one  of  a 
series  of  huts  for  war  work.  The  War  Service  Committee  of  the 
Women's  City  Club  appointed  chairmen  from  among  its  members 
to  supervise  the  work,  a  director  was  in  charge  of  the  Food  Facts 
Bureau  and  a  skilled  worker  was  placed  over  the  clothing  division. 
An  expert  in  the  making  and  renovation  of  clothing  was  in  attend- 
ance twice  a  week,  and  one  on  millinery  once  a  week  to  give  advice 
to  the  many  who  came  for  assistance. 

The  Salvage  section  was  opened  after  the  war  was  over  and  was 
closely  related  to  Clothing  Facts.  The  former  is  a  part  of  the 
National  Thrift  Campaign,  and  the  bureau  was  made  the  up-town 
information  section  of  the  New  England  Bureau  of  Salvage  on  lists 
of  material  to  be  saved,  the  current  prices  of  rags,  the  names  of  state 
directors,  and  general  facts  about  salvage. 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  219 

The  questions  below  give  an  idea  of  the  clothing  information 
desired  in  an  urban  community,  and  show  the  kind  of  advice  con- 
stantly sought.  They  may  be  suggestive  to  any  community  wishing 
to  organize  a  clothing  bureau:  They  were  the  basis  for  the  sort  of 
information  given  graphically  or  by  practical  personal  advice  to  the 
many  visitors  to  the  bureau  on  the  Common,  or  for  sending  charts, 
exhibits  or  posters  to  other  clubs  or  community  centers.  Each 
locality  has  its  own  problems  and  the  Clothing  Bureau  must  find 
them  out,  endeavor  to  solve  them  and  train  the  public  to  meet 
them.  An  ideal  center  would  gradually  meet  the  needs  of  a 
neighborhood  and  not  attempt  to  spring  full  fledged  into  being  from 
direct  copying  of  another  bureau's  work. 

TYPICAL  QUESTIONS  ASKED  AT  THE  CLOTHING  BUREAU 

Where  can  I  learn  how  to  select  good  materials? 

What  low-priced  materials  are  worth  buying  if  one  cannot  afford  the  best? 

How  can  I  choose  ready-to-wear  clothing  wisely? 

How  can  I  make  over  this  coat  for  my  daughter  ? 

What  kind  and  price  of  stockings  are  satisfactory? 

What  department  stores  are  reliable? 

Where  can  I  learn  to  sew  and  to  make  garments  or  trim  hats  ? 

How  is  cloth  made? 

\Vhat  is  shoddy,  will  it  wear  well;  and  how  can  I  detect  it? 

How  do  you  make  a  clothing  budget? 

What  is  the  best  way  to  renovate  old  material,  and  where  can  I  learn 
to  do  it? 

Where  can  I  obtain  patterns  for  refugee  garments? 

WTiere  can  I  buy  shoes  that  are  correct  in  shape? 

How  can  I  learn  to  dye  clothing  at  home? 

What  kind  of  cloth  will  wear  well  for  men's  clothing? 

What  underwear  is  the  most  satisfactory  in  winter? 

Where  can  one  buy  patterns  requiring  the  minimum  of  material? 

Where  can  rags  be  sold  ? 

How  does  one  make  telling  posters? 

How  can  I  make  over  the  dress  I  have  on  ? 

What  are  non-essentials  in  clothing? 

What  kind  of  clothing  should  a  baby  wear?    What  kind  a  little  girl? 

How  can  spots  be  removed  from  clothing? 

How  much  should  one  spend  on  children's  clothing? 

What  is  beauty  in  clothing? 

What  is  the  reason  the  stores  are  stopping  the  practice  of  letting  goods 
go  out  on  approval  ? 

Where  can  I  learn  how  to  use  commercial  patterns? 

What  sort  of  clothing  is  most  healthful? 

What  factories  make  the  most  reliable  material? 

What  are  labor-saving  methods  of  clothing  conservation  and  where 
can  I  learn  them? 


220 


CLOTHING 


The  three-fold  ideal  for  clothing  conservation — Intelligence, 
Health,  Thrift — was  the  result  of  the  experience  with  the  needs 
of  thousands  of  visitors.  Separate  topics  were  grouped  under  these 
headings.  A. poster  (see  below)  was  hung  on  the  wall  giving  the 
ideals  and  statements ;  this  led  visitors  to  realize  the  extent  of  the 
subject  and  their  responsibility  as  consumers ;  it  stimulated  further 


FIG.  22.— Crest  of  Clothing  Facts  Bureau. 

questions,  and  these  in  turn  resulted  in  better  methods  of  clothing 
purchase,  and  the  ideal  of  clothing  thrift  for  the  benefit  of  the  home 
and  nation. 

THE  THREE-FOLD  IDEAL 


1.  Intelligence: 


for 
CLOTHING  CONSERVATION 


Do  you  know  how  textiles  and  clothing  are  made? 

Do  you  know  the  uses,  prices  and  values  of  various  textiles? 

Do  you  know  the  properties  of  textiles? 

Are  you  standardizing  your  dress? 

Do  you  know  how  to  test,  judge,  and  select  fabrics? 

How  much  have  you  to  spend  on  clothing? 

Have  you  inventories  of  all  your  clothing  to  help  you  estimate 

needs? 
Are  you   planning   for   beauty    as   well   as   simplicity   in   dress, 

and  modesty  in  outer  and  under  garments? 
Are  you  helping  the  retail  trade  to  eliminate  abuses? 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  221 

2    Thrift: 

Are  you  giving  up  luxurious  clothing  and  rapid  changes  of  fash- 
ion during  these  serious  years? 

Are  you  keeping  your  wardrobe  at  the  minimum  ? 

Are  you  buying  enduring,  simply-made  garments  that  will  last 
for  a  long  time? 

Are  you  selecting  staple  materials  rather  than  fancy  fabrics? 

Are  you  wearing  out  your  old  clothes? 

Are  you  repairing  and  remodelling  but  refraining  from  unneces- 
sary changes? 

Are  you  taking  care  of  your  clothing? 

Are  you  keeping  a  clothing  budget? 

3.  Health: 

Are  you  wearing  light,   loose,    porous   clothing? 

Are  you  wearing  shoes  the  shape  of  the  feet? 

Are  you  wearing  heels  not  too  high  and  directly  under  the  heel 

of  the  foot? 

Are  you  keeping  the  body  warm? 
Are  you  keeping  the  body  clean? 
Are  you  keeping  the  body  dry  ? 
Are  you  keeping  the  body  unhampered? 
Are  you  keeping  the  body  well  ventilated? 

Posters  and  slogans,  changed  frequently,  were  found  stimulat- 
ing and  helpful,  the  following  being  suggestive  of  this  method  of 
teaching  the  public : 


CLOTHING  COMMANDMENTS. 

I.  Know    what    you    can    spend,    think    over    your    needs,    and 

keep  accounts. 
II.  Repair,  remodel,  care  for  clothes,  and  wear  out  old  clothes. 

III.  Cut  your  wardrobe  to  the  minimum. 

IV.  Select  according  to  the  value  and  appropriateness  of  materials. 
V.  Choose  garments  which  harmonize. 

VI.  Know  how  materials  are  made  and  buy  enduring,  simple  gar- 
ments that  will  need  few  repairs  and  stay  in  fashion. 
VII.  Consider  workmanship,  beauty  and   modesty. 
VIII.  Be  a  considerate  shopper !     Carry  home  packages ;  pay  charge 
accounts  promptly;    return  goods  not  wanted  quickly,   and 
in  good  condition. 
IX.  Select  clothing  that  will  keep  the  body  clean,  dry,  evenly  and 

moderately  warm,  unhampered,  and  well  ventilated. 
X.  Wear  shoes  that  are  flexible  at  the  instep,  straight  along  the 
joint   and   big   toe,   with   heels   not   too   high    and   directly 
under  the  heel  of  the  foot. 


222 


CLOTHING 


THE  CLOTHING  FACTS  BUREAU 

• 

has  on  hand 
BOOKS  on: 

CLOTHING  AND  TEXTILES 
CLIPPINGS  filed  from  daily  newspapers 
BULLETINS  on: 

TEXTILE  FIBERS 

TEXTILE  FABRICS 

DRESSMAKING 

MILLINERY 

HYGIENE  of  CLOTHING 

"DYEING 

CARE  of  CLOTHING 

RENOVATION  of  CLOTHING 

CLOTHING  BUDGETS 
TESTS  for  CLOTH 

PATTERNS  and  SAMPLES  for  CHILDREN'S  CLOTHING 
Made  from  Worn  Garments 

INFORMATION  on  REMODELLING  and  RENOVATING 
CLOTHES  and  HATS 

SUGGESTIONS  on  EXHIBIT  MATERIAL 
SAMPLES 
POSTERS,  CHARTS  and  SLOGANS 

EXHIBITS  Showing  PROCESSES   of  MANUFACTURE 


A   WISE   SHOPPER 

knows 
What  she  has  to  spend 

and 
Never  spends  more. 

Knows 

What  She  Wants 
and  insists  on  having  it. 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU 


223 


SENSIBLE   STANDARDS   IN  DRESS 
ESSENTIAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  DESIGN 

SKIRTS  should  have:  — 

a.  Width  at  bottom  sufficient  to  allow  for  freedom  in  stepping 

up  and  forward. 

b.  Width  around  hips  sufficient  to  prevent  drawing  across  the 

front  and  back. 

c.  Length  and  fullness  so  planned  that:  — 

1.  The  skirt  will  not  drop  too  low  nor  pull  too  high 

when  one  is  seated. 

2.  Holding  up  is  unnecessary. 

WAISTS  and  SLEEVES  should  allow  for  freedom  of  movement  in 
any  direction. 

LIGHT    COLORED    COLLARS,     CUFFS,    FRONTS     and     WAIST 
LININGS  should  be  detachable  and  cleansible. 

POCKETS  should  be  placed  in  dresses,  suits  and  coats. 

SHOES  should  have:— 

a.  The  inner  line  straight  along  the  joint  and  big  toe,  allowing 

the  toes  to  extend  directly  forward. 

b.  Plenty  of  length  and  width  for  the  toes. 

c.  Heels  broad  and  not  too  high. 

d.  Arch  flexible  but  snugly  fitting. 

HATS  should  be  light  in  weight,  evenly  balanced  and  well  ventilated. 

RAPIDITY  and  CONVENIENCE  in  dressing  should  be  considered 
in  the  planning. 

MODESTY  should  be  an  absolute  essential  in  the  design  of  any  gar- 
ment, whether  for  evening  or  every-day  wear. 

Do  you  approve  these  standards'?    Will  you  stand  for  them?    If 
so,  sign  the  subscription  list  below.1 


HELP    STABILIZE    BUSINESS 
Rapid  changes 

and 

Extremes  of  Fashion 

are   important   factors  in   increasing  the 
Cost   of   Production 


1  Subscription  lists  were  widely  signed  by  persons  pledging  to  uphold 
these  standards. 


224  CLOTHING 

Organization  of  a  Clothing  Bureau. — The  organization  and 
scope  of  a  clothing  bureau  may  be  somewhat  as  follows : 

The  Committee. — A  live  committee,  interested  and,  if  possible, 
proficient  in  textile  and  clothing  matters,  can  be  of  great  assist- 
ance. It  can  supervise  the  work,  consider  the  needs  of  the  com- 
munity, discuss  and  settle  the  many  questions  arising  as  to  wise 
methods  of  action,  arouse  interest  in  the  subject,  obtain  exhibits  and 
connect  the  bureau  with  textile  manufacturers,  retail  houses,  and 
other  allied  agencies. 

The  Space  Allotment. — The  space  set  aside  for  the  exhibits 
and  research  work  need  not  be  large.  The  work  can  have  a  room 
to  itself  or  an  alcove  in  a  larger  room  which  is  used  for  Farm 
Bureau  purposes.  A  space  twelve  by  fifteen  feet  has  been  used  suc- 
cessfully. There  should  be  sufficient  room  for  a  number  of  people 
to  walk  about  and  look  at  the  exhibits,  for  a  demonstrator  to  gather 
a  group  about  her  and  for  a  few  people  to  read  at  a  table.  The 
light  should  be  good  that  texture  and  color  may  be  studied.  Two 
windows  are  .desirable  that  the  sunlight  may  be  excluded  from  one 
if  necessary  without  darkening  the  room.  If  a  section  of  a  room  is 
used  there  should  be  the  opportunity  of  spreading  over  into  a 
larger  space  when  lectures  or  special  demonstrations  are  given.  Tall 
screens  should  be  provided  to  which  exhibits  can  be  fastened.  On 
at  least  two  sides  of  the  room  there  should  be  a  series  of  shallow 
shelves  with  a  flat  top  on  which  exhibits  can  be  placed.  The 
shelves  can  be  used  to  file  mounted  exhibits,  charts,  and  posters  when 
they  are  not  in  use.  The  height  from  the  floor  of  the  top  shelf 
could  be  about  thirty  or  thirty-five  inches  and  the  depth  of  the 
shelves  depends  on  the  size  of  the  exhibit  cards  in  use — twenty-two 
to  twenty-five  inches  is  usually  sufficient.  Clothing,  shoes,  stock- 
ings, and  other  articles  can  be  kept  on  the  shelves  to  take  out  for 
illustration  when  necessary.  On  the  wall  back  of  the  top  shelf 
burlap  should  be  fastened  to  which  to  pin  exhibits,  budgets, 
or  patterns. 

A  three-drawer  filing  cabinet  is  needed  and  a  four-drawer  card 
catalogue  holder.  These  can  be  bought  from  any  house  making 
bffice  equipment,  but  boxes  can  be  used  and  expense  saved.  A  few 
closing  tables  are  very  useful  at  which  students  can  read  or  for  visi- 
tors to  draft  patterns  or  write  directions  for  budgets  or  renovation. 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  225 

Closing  chairs  should  be  provided  which  can  be  folded  away  when 
not  in  use..  There  should  be  enough  of  them  to  seat  an  audience 
for  a  lecture  or  a  demonstration.  A  bookcase  will  be  required  for 
reference  material ;  simple  shelves  can  be  made  or  a  variety  of  cases 
bought  in  sections  as  the  need  arises.  Bulletin  boards  and  a  black- 
board should  be  hung  on  the  wall  in  convenient  places  for  the 
public  to  consult.  Bust  forms  and  figures  are  useful  to  display 
garments.  A  good-sized  closet  is  required  for  storing  away  cases, 
figures  or  garments  which  are  not  in  use. 

The  Director. — A  trained  woman  with  ample  practical  experi- 
ence should  be  in  control  to  plan  and  conduct  the  work,  give  advice, 
answer  questions,  and  organize  the  various  duties  of  the  bureau. 
In  a  small  community  a  special  worker  for  clothing  could  not  be 
afforded,  and  the  general  head  of  all  of  the  activities  of  the  center 
should  understand  this  subject.  Whoever  is  responsible  for  the 
clothing  should  have  knowledge  of  textiles  as  well  as  garment  con- 
struction and  renovation  in  order  to  give  advice  of  value. 

The  Activities  of  a  Clothing  Information  Bureau. — The 
Files. — Complete,  up-to-date  information  should  be  placed  in  the 
files  gathered  from  the  daily  press,  magazines,  advertising  circulars, 
trade  reports,  Government  and  educational  pamphlets,  and  other 
material.  In  order  to  cover  the  subject  adequately,  there  should  be 
information  under  such  headings  as  the  following:  Advertisements 
(concerning  honest,  reliable  information)  ;  Budgets  (general  and 
clothing,  plans  for  various  ages,  estimates  and  calculations)  ;  Busi- 
ness Methods;  Care  of  Clothing  (renovation,  cleansing,  spot  re- 
moval, laundry);  Charts  and  Exhibits;  Clothing  Industries;  Co- 
operation with  Various  Agencies ;  Color  and  Design ;  Conservation ; 
Cotton;  Community  Service '(such  as  the  Consumers'  League,  Trade 
Union  League,  Child  Labor)  ;  Economics  (intelligent  shopping, 
well-selected  wardrobes,  the  modern  consumer)  ;  Education  (sales- 
manship, vocational  training,  college  and  technical  schools)  ;  Equip- 
ment and  Supplies  (sewing  room,  notions,  and  trimmings) ;  Farm 
and  Home  Bureaus,  Clubs,  and  Societies;  Foreign  Conditions  in 
Clothing;  Garment  and  Dressmaking;  Government  Publications 
and  Suggestions;  Hygiene  of  Clothing;  Illustrative  Material;  In- 
dustries (dyeing,  printing  of  fabrics,  cleansing,  various  additional 
fibers);  Knitted  Goods;  Labor  Questions;  Legislation;  Linen; 
15 


226  CLOTHING 

Manufacture  (reliable  houses,  guarantees,  staples  and  standards)  ; 
Millinery;  Organization's  Plans;  Patterns;  Primitive  and  Revived 
Textile  Industries ;  Red  Cross  and  Y.  W.  C.  A.  work ;  Representative 
Courses  of  Instruction;  Retail  Trade  Conditions;  School  and  Col- 
lege Work;  Shoes  and  Stockings;  Shopping  and  Bargains;  Silk; 
Standard,  Artistic  and  Simplified  Dress;  Textiles  (growth,  manu- 
facture, finishing,  tests) ;  Thrift  and  Good  Judgment ;  Wastes  (over- 
luxury,  changing  fashions,  materials);  Salvage  and  Reclamation; 
Women's  Employments;  Underwear  and  Corsets,  and  such  other 
subjects  as  seem  necessary. 

Cards  with  samples  of  staple  fabrics  giving  information  on  the 
name,  price,  width,  place  of  purchase  and  manufacture,  and  prob- 
able condition  of  endurance  should  be  kept  on  file. 

Card  Catalogues. — Information  on  various  subjects  is  asked  for 
repeatedly,  and  can  be  kept  available  on  card  catalogues.  Such  ma- 
terial as  the  following  should  be  collected :  Addresses  of  people  in- 
terested in  the  bureau  and  desiring  the  printed  material  issued  and 
information  on  demonstrations  or  lectures;  lecturers  and  teachers 
of  textiles  and  clothing  willing  to  give  help  when  needed ;  schools, 
colleges,  and  classes  doing  good  work  in  textiles  and  clothing ;  voca- 
tional, trade,  and  housekeeping  schools ;  allied  agencies ;  textile  fac- 
tories willing  to  have  visitors  or  to  give  examples  of  processes ; 
standard  and  sensible  dress ;  dressmakers,  fine  repairers,  renovation 
workers,  and  purchasers  of  rags ;  county  bureaus  and  home  bureaus. 

Clippings. — Trade  journals,  daily  newspapers,  and  magazines 
should  be  read  and  important  material  cut  from  them.  The  bul- 
letin boards  can  thus  be  supplied  with  fresh,  up-to-date  material. 
The  clippings  that  seem  especially  valuable  and  permanent  can 
later  be  mounted  on  heavy  paper  and  placed  in  the  file  under  appro- 
priate headings,  or  in-  scrap  books  which  are  sold  especially  for 
this  purpose. 

Posters. — There  is  no  better  way  of  catching  the  attention  of 
the  public  than  by  a  good  poster.  These  can  be  made  by  cutting  out 
pictures  and  pasting  them  on  a  large  card,  and  printing  or  stencil- 
ling the  slogans  to  explain  the  picture.  A  small  hand  printing  out- 
fit can  be  bought  for  a  few  dollars.  The  art  school  or  art  depart 
ments  in  the  regular  schools  or  in  vocational  schools  are  glad  to 
design  posters  for  this  kind  of  work,  as  they  make  a  problem  of  the 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  227 

design  and  the  class  sends  in  its  suggestions;  or  a  series  of 
slogans  in  various  colors  without  picture  can  be  of  service,  such  as 
the  following: 


WHAT  A  WELL-DRESSED  GIRL  WEARS  TO  BUSINESS. 
Neat  gloves. 
Shoes  that  are  the  shape  of  the  feet,  with  low  broad  heel. 

Old  gloves  and  shoes  are  neat  when  clean  and  carefully  mended. 
Neat  tailor-made  shirtwaists. 
Neatly  made  suit  and  coat. 
Neat,  well-made  hat. 
Clean,  neat  underwear. 
Clean  collar. 
Hair  neatly  dressed. 
Clean  hands  and  finger  nails. 

From  New  York  Child  Welfare  Exhibit,  1911. 


Commercial  posters  can  be  purchased,  but  little  as  yet  has  been 
done  on  clothing  excepting  on  the  correct  shape  of  the  shoe. 

Exhibits. — A  constant  series  of  exhibits  should  be  shown  in  the 
bureau.  These  should  be  changed  frequently,  every  two  weeks 
being  desirable,  and  a  special  rally  can  occur  at  intervals.  Local 
merchants  are  willing  to  cooperate  not  only  by  sending  material  to 
the  bureau,  but  by  window  displays  in  their  own  buildings.  Col- 
lections may  be  borrowed  from  interested  persons  or  acquired  as  a 
part  of  the  permanent  exhibit  material  of  the  bureau.  The  follow- 
ing subjects  are  suggestive  of  such  collections :  Sensible  Garments 
versus  Unreliable;  Practical  Gifts;  The  Use  of  Old  Garments;  Re- 
modelling Hats;  Remodelling  Garments;*  Comparative  Stady  of 
Available  Materials ;  Simple  Designs  for  Clothing  with  Accompany- 
ing Patterns;  Material  Worth  Making  Over  and  Not  Worth  Mak- 
ing Over;  Renovation  of  Flowers  and  Feathers;  Shoes  and  the 
Feet;  Stockings;  Underwear,  Good  and  Bad;  Dyeing  and  Print- 
ing ;  Laundry  Methods  and  Results ;  Care  of  Clothes ;  How  to  Use 
a  Commercial  Pattern;  Tests  on  Cloth  and  Information  on 
the  Procedure. 

Travelling  Exhibits. — Various  phases  of  clothing  can  be  con- 
cretely illustrated  by  the  use  of  charts.  These  are  needed  in  classes 
and  clubs  and  in  work  with  foreign  women — such  examples  help  in 
giving  ideals  of  simple  adequate  American  methods  where  Ian- 


228  CLOTHING 

guage  would  fail  to  carry  the  desired  information.  A  Clothing 
Bureau  should  consider  such  exhibits  an  important  feature  of  its 
work.  As  the  wear  and  tear  on  such  travelling  material  is  great,  a 
small  fee  and  transportation  charges  should  be  paid  by  the  bor- 
rower. Such  exhibits  as  the  following  are  in  request:  Clothing  for 
Children  in  Under  and  Outer  Garments;  Renovation  of  Garments 
and  Their  Remodelling;  Spot  Removal;  The  Laundry  for  Com- 
parative Methods ;  How  Cloth  is  Made ;  Home  Tests  for  the  Effect 
of  the  Laundry,  for  Shrinking,  Wear,  Light,  and  Strength ;  Patterns 
for  Easily  Made  Clothing;  Repair  of  Stockings  and  Underwear; 
and  Reliable  Cloth. 

Bulletin  Boards. — A  valuable  service  can  be  rendered  by  the  bul- 
letin boards.  Clippings  from  daily  trade  or  news  journals,  items  of 
interest,  slogans,  timely  quotations,  and  illustrations  can  be  made  a 
means  of  awakening  the  public  to  interest  in  clothing  conservation. 

Slogans. — Calling  attention  to  important  matters  by  dramatic 
sentences  which  are  both  strong  and  terse  and  remain  in  the 
memory  more  easily  than  more  elaborate  information  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  creating  interest.  This  method  can  be  made  especially 
effective  by  printing  in  large  type  with  a  wise  use  of  color. 

Publicity. — It  is  necessary  to  enlist  the  attention  of  the  public 
that  the  work  may  not  fail  through  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  its 
worth.  Plans  being  carried  out  must  be  circulated.  The  daily 
press  is  anxious  to  keep  informed,  and  if  the  subject  is  kept  full  of 
life  with  new  developments,  constant  reports  will  be  put  before  the 
public.  The  department  stores  and  specialty  shops  can  also  help  by 
loans  to  the  bureau  and  by  timely  window  displays.  Textile  fac- 
tories will  cooperate  by  exhibits,  and  trade  journals  are  usually  will- 
ing to  send  copies  without  cost  to  the  bureau. 

Home  Visits. — Volunteer  workers  or  paid  assistants  can  help 
individuals  in  the  homes.  This  is  one  way  that  foreign  women 
can  be  interested,  taught,  and  Americanized.  Textiles  and  clothing 
are  so  close  to  the  need  of  all  that  the  work  becomes  an  "open 
sesame  "  even  when  others  fail. 

Research  Center. — On  account  of  the  printed  or  the  concrete 
form  of  the  information  and  the  presence  of  able  advisers,  the 
bureau  can  render  a  service  as  a  study  center  for  students  of  cloth- 
ing from  the  regular  and  vocational  schools.  Salesmanship  stu- 


A  CLOTHING  INFORMATION  BUREAU  229 

dents  and  college  research  workers  have  made  the  Clothing  Pacts 
Bureau  on  the  Boston  Common  a  place  of  investigation  on  the 
many  aspects  of  clothing  economics. 

Classes  and  Club  Meetings. — Groups  of  people  desiring  lessons 
in  sewing,  garment  making,  renovation,  millinery,  or  sewing  crafts 
can  be  taught  at  the  bureau,  or  classes  can  be  organized  elsewhere. 
The  staff  should  be  ready  to  give  talks  on  Clothing  Economics  at 
meetings  or  club  gatherings. 

Volunteer  Assistance. — Untrained,  volunteer  workers  can  render 
valuable  aid.  They  can  give  regular  hours  to  such  needs  as  print- 
ing posters,  coloring  pictures,  cutting  patterns,  explaining  exhibits, 
taking  clippings  from  the  daily  press  or  magazines,  filing,  and 
similar  duties.  Thereby  interest  in  the  work  is  spread  as  well  as 
assistance  given. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What   methods    in    the    "Clothing    Information    Bureau"    seem    to    you 

likely  to  be  especially  successful? 

2.  Show  that  such  work  is  as  necessary  in  peace  time  as  in  war. 

3.  What  can  a  "Clothing  Information  Bureau"  do  for  Americanization? 

4.  In   how  far  does  your  own   dress  conform  to  "  Sensible  Standards  of 

Dress"? 

5.  Design  a  poster  showing  correct  dress  for  a  business  woman. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY 

1.  Make  a  plan  for  a  clothing  information  service  to  be  started  in  a  simple 

way  by  a  local  women's  club.  What  other  agencies  might  be  enlisted 
to  support  a  larger  venture? 

2.  What  similar  service  could  a  high  school  department  of  household  arts 

accomplish    in    furnishing   information   to   the   public? 

3.  One  or  two  metropolitan  newspapers  have   started  a  household   infor- 

mation service  in  connection  with  its  women's  page.  Show  what  a 
local  newspaper  might  do  in  cooperation  with  a  women's  club  or 
teacher  of  home  economics. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS 

Information  for  the  Consumer. — The  subject  of  clothing— its 
choice,  cost,  care — as  presented  in  the  foregoing  chapters  aims  to 
promote  conservation  and  the  wise  and  economical  administration 
of  the  wardrobe.  These  qualities  are  regarded  as  fundamental  in 
intelligent  citizenship.  The  book  is  written  for  the  consumers  who 
are  the  main  purchasers  of  clothing — the  home  makers,  the  teachers, 
the  workers  in  the  Extension  Service,  the  club  women,  the  sales 
girls,  and  the  mass  of  women  and  girls  at  home,  at  school,  or  at  work. 

These  consumers  have  been  active  in  clothing  conservation  in  the 
various  war  agencies  and  in  the  after-war  Thrift  Movement  inaugu- 
rated by  the  United  States  Treasury  Department  and  other  agen- 
cies. Work  which  may  be  done  to  still  further  advance  these 
economic  movements  in  connection  with  every-day  living  is  indicated 
in  "Clothing  Interests/'  Chapter  I,  and  "Intelligent  Shopping," 
Chapter  VIII.  Consumers  who  wish  to*  know  something  of 
the  values  and  uses  of  the  four  leading  textiles  and  also  of  leather 
and  rubber  goods  will  obtain  suggestions  in  the  chapters  dealing 
with  wool,  cotton,  silk,  and  linen  clothing  and  in  "  Clothing  Ac- 
cessories." Mothers  wishing  to  keep  their  families  in  good  physical 
condition  will  find  in  the  chapter  on  "  Clothing  and  Health  •' 
recommendations  for  the  wise  choice  of  textiles  and  articles  of 
clothing  as  they  influence  the  efficiency  of  the  body. 

Club  women  throughout  the  country  are  endeavoring  to  formu- 
late ideals  and  standards  for  textiles  and  clothing.  They  are  study- 
ing fabrics,  the  methods  and  conditions  of  their  manufacture,  and 
the  establishing  of  styles  which  will  do  away  with  unnecessarily 
rapid  changes  and  extremes  of  fashion  in  every-day  attire.  The 
chapter  on  "  Serviceable  Dress "  gives  data  on  this  club  move- 
ment and  also  suggests  possible  future  action;  this  and  other 
chapters  of  the  book  can  be  used  by  Home  Economics  sections  of 
women's  clubs  as  the  basis  of  club  discussions  or  of  a  program  of 
study  and  action.  "  The  Clothing  Budget  and  the  Wardrobe  "  has 
230 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  231 

recommendations  for  home  makers,  college  women,  working  girls, 
young  married  women,  and  others,  on  the  way  to  make  a  budget, 
and  on  items  of  the  clothing  outfit  which  need  consideration  before 
one  should  attempt  to  shop.  The  way  to  meet  the  many 'recurring 
questions  in  the  oversight  and  remaking  of  clothing  is  dealt  with 
in  the  chapter  "  Care,  Repair,  and  Renovation  of  Clothing."  The 
Appendix  also  gives  numerous  illustrations  of  the  making  over  of 
old  garments,  and  the  Frontispiece  shows  the  appearance  of  several 
which  were  made  over  for  children.  "  Dyeing,  Laundry,  and  Spot 
Removal "  gives  further  information  on  the  keeping  of  clothing  in- 
good  condition  by  presenting  among  other  topics  methods  of  home 
dyeing  and  tinting.  Finally,  plans  for  a  nation-wide  effort  for  fur- 
thering thrift  in  clothing  through  a  community  information  ser- 
vice are  given  in  the  chapter  "A  Clothing  Information  Bureau."  A 
movement  of  this  kind  would  help  both  foreign  and  American  born 
women,  who  are  not  reached  by  schools,  classes,  and  clubs,  to  spend 
their  clothing  money  more  wisely  and  thus  the  Thrift  Movement 
would  receive  a  special  impetus. 

Progress  Through  Textile  Standardization  and  Selection. — 
The  American  Home  Economics  Association,  at  its  annual  meeting 
in  the  summer  of  1919,  feeling  the  seriousness  of  the  textile  situa- 
tion in  the  country  and  the  lack  of  adequate  work  in  textile  selec- 
tion in  the  schools,  adopted  the  following  resolutions : 

WHEREAS,  We  as  home  economics  teachers  realize  that  women  form  the 
bulk  of  retail  purchasers  of  textile  fabrics,  and  whereas  we  believe  that  in 
the  interests  of  efficient  homemaking  and  of  individual  and  national  thrift 
they  should  be  trained  to  select  such  fabrics  with  discrimination  and  to 
study  expenditures  for  clothing  in  relation  to  income;  therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  That  this  Association  urge  all  teachers  of  clothing  in  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools,  vocational  schools,  normal  schools,  and  colleges, 
and  all  home  economics  extension  staffs  to  feature  the  selection  of  textile 
fabrics  and  the  clothing  budget  in  their  course  of  instruction  during  the 
coming  year;  and  further,  that  it  request  the  active  cooperation  of  the 
General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  and  of  women's  magazines  and  farm 
journals  in  bringing  these  matters  to  the  attention  of  American  women 
and  girls. 

AND  WHEREAS,  We  believe  that  a  large  percentage  of  American  women 
are  ready  today  to  create  and  maintain  a  market  for  textile  fabrics  con- 
forming to  reasonable  standards,  and  know  that  we  can  readily  reach  these 
women  and  others  through  the  various  types  of  home  economics  teaching 
in  which  our  members  are  engaged;  be  it 

Resolved,  That  this  Association  invite  the  cooperation  of  associations  of 
manufacturers,  jobbers,  and  retailers,  in  determining  such  standards,  and 


232  CLOTHING 

in  putting  on  the  market  a  limited  number  ot  standardized  fabrics  of 
various  grades  on  which  is  placed  some  identifying  symbol  to  signify 
such  standardization. 

The  Association  expressed  its  conviction  that  much  more  time 
must  be  devoted  to  the  clothing  side  of  the  budget  than  has  been 
given  before,  not  only  in  the  homes  but  in  schools  and  educational 
institutions.  Textile  and  clothing  courses  are  already  found  in 
many  schools,  but,  in  general,  they  fail  to  give  adequate  attention 
to  the  selection  and  care  of  garments.  Emphasis  on  how  to  choose 
wisely  would  tend  to  develop  more  intelligent  consumers.  To  give 
attention  to  these  topics  is  especially  timely,  for  the  Government  is 
urging  conservative  buying  and  pointing  out  the  waste  due  to 
prevalent  methods  of  clothing  purchase. 

A  committee  was  appointed  by  the  American  Home  Economics 
Association  to  carry  out  the  program  of  the  two  resolutions.  This 
committee  is  in  two  sections,  a  small,  very  active,  central  com- 
mittee, and  a  large  advisory  one.  The  former  has  had  conferences 
with  manufacturers,  jobbers,  retailers,  and  textile  experts  through- 
out the  country  in  relation  to  the  wisest  methods  of  standardiza- 
tion of  a  few  constantly  used  fabrics.  It  is  also  meeting  the 
teachers  of  Home  Economics  to  discuss  their  textile  plans  with 
them.  It  is  conducting  laboratory  tests  to  determine  the  minimum 
condition  of  fabrics  at  which  endurance  is  possible,  and  it  is  study- 
ing the  purchasing  habits  of  the  people.  It  is  also  working  to 
further  federal  legislation  in  aid  of  standardization.  Questions  of 
a  like  character  are  dealt  with  in  this  book  and  the  suggestions  may 
be  of  service  to  those  who  wish  material  for  discussion,  demonstra- 
tion, class  work,  or  exhibits  on  textile  standardization.  Laboratory 
work  is  also  indicated  in  many  chapters,  as  in  spot  removal,  tests 
of  fabrics,  laundry,  and  home  dyeing.  Demonstrations  with  accom- 
panying exhibits  can  be  planned  also  from  the  text  on  numerous 
topics,  such  as  the  following :  "  Standard  Values  in  Wool,"  or  any 
other  of  the  four  leading  textiles ;  on  "  The  Hygiene  of  the  Feet," 
"  The  Effect  of  Substitutes  on  the  Endurance  of  a  Fabric/'  "  The 
Price  of  Clothing  as  Related  to  Wear,"  "  Renovating  and  Making 
Over  as  a  Thrift  Problem,"  "  Putting  Garments  Away  for  the 
Winter,"  "Making  the  Clothing  Bud.L'vt,"  ami  other  like  practical 
subjects.  The  table  of  contents  can  be  used  for  further  suggestions. 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  233 

Opportunities  for  Service. — The  Home  Economics  teacher  is 
the  natural  leader  in  the  Thrift  Movement  as  it  relates  to  the  home. 
She  can  inspire  the  students  in  her  classes  to  real  economy  in  their 
every-day  life.  About  two  hundred  thousand  girls  are  registered  in 
Home  Economics  courses  in  the  high  and  vocational  schools  and 
in  federally  aided  schools.  The  teacher  must  make  it  a  point  per- 
sonally to  be  an  exponent  of  wise  economy,  to  live  on  a  budget,  to 
spend  wisely,  to  take  care  of  her  own  clothing,  and  to  look  attrac- 
tive. She  should  know  the  mothers  and  homes  of  the  pupils,  help 
the  former  to  intelligent  methods  of  clothing  selection  and  discover 
how  the  course  in  textiles  can  be  of  the  greatest  service  to  them. 
She  should  be  as  active  as  is  possible  in  the  club  work  of  the  town, 
be  able  and  willing  to  speak  on  clothing  conservation  and  help  the 
women  with  whom  she  comes  in  contact  to  make  and  live  on  a 
clothing  budget,  and  get  the  best  values  for  their  money.  Her 
school  room  should  have  books  of  reference  in  connection  with 
every-day  problems  of  living.  By  the  aid  of  these  books  she  can 
set  topics  for  the  pupils  to  look  up,  report  upon,  and  collect  ex- 
hibits in  illustration  of  the  points  they  make.  The  mothers  will 
soon  become  interested  as  they  hear  the  children  discuss  these  mat- 
ters at  home  and  will  be  apt  to  themselves  study  in  order  to  help  the 
children  or  to  use  the  results  at  their  own  club  meetings. 

There  are  so  many  kinds  of  schools  where  Home  Economics  is 
taught  that  much  should  be  accomplished  if  all  will  unite  in  the 
effort — the  elementary,  the  secondary,  the  vocational,  the  technical, 
the  home  making,  the  trade,  continuation,  and  part-time  schools 
and  salesmanship  classes.  Teachers  have  now  a  great  opportunity 
to  forward  the  national  plan  of  thrift  and  thus  do  their  part  in 
decreasing  the  high  cost  of  living  and  in  making  the  home 
more  economical. 

Club  women  (about  2,000,000  in  number)  have  also  a  like  duty 
before  them,  and  by  working  in  direct  contact  with  the  teachers 
can  have  the  benefit  of  the  Home  Economics  training  of  the  latter 
and  also  help  them  in  their  busy  lives  to  touch  the  community 
more  vitally.  If  the  movement  of  the  General  Federation  of 
Women's  Clubs  toward  standard  fabrics  and  dress  is  to  receive  ade- 
quate attention  the  public  must  desire  it,  and  this  will  require  a 
further  education  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  The  club  women  are 


234  CLOTHING 

especially  fitted  to  accomplish  this.  Already  there  are  factories 
making  standard  fabrics,  but  women  must  know  what  makes  a  tex- 
tile a  standard  and  thus  be  able  to  select  it,  for,  at  the  present,  there 
is  no  mark  to  indicate  the  standards.  Through  public  discussions 
and  demonstrations  of  the  actual  conditions  as  to  clothing  and  tex- 
tiles which  will  indicate  the  wise  way  to  buy,  much  can  be  accom- 
plished, and  it  would  be  but  a  short  time  before  some  of  the  problems 
confronting  the  country  and  dependent  upon  the  action  of  the  con- 
sumer would  be  solved.  Suggestions  concerning  clothing  selection 
are  dealt  with  in  many  chapters  of  this  book,  and  "  A  Clothing  In- 
formation Bureau  "  tells  how  to  organize  an  effective  community 
service  for  training  people  to  intelligent  buying.  The  manufacturer 
is  willing  and  anxious  to  give  the  consumer  what  she  wants  and  the 
better  type  of  department  store  manager  will  welcome  the  setting 
of  standards  in  clothing.  As  the  purchases  of  the  consumer,  there- 
fore, determine  largely  the  output  of  the  mills  and  the  stock  in  the 
stores,  it  is  the  patriotic  duty  of  women  to  inform  themselves  as  to 
the  right  way  to  use  their  power  as  purchasers  of  goods. 

In  1917  there  were  20,724  women  registered  in  Home  Eco- 
nomics courses  in  colleges,  universities,  and  technological  schools. 
Such  students  will  find  in  this  book  suggestions  as  to  research  and  in- 
vestigation into  conditions  affecting  the  home,  manufacturing  inter- 
ests, and  the  retail  trade.  The  subjects  discussed  in  it  are  a  vital  part 
of  many  studies,  such  as  arithmetic,  history,  commercial  geography, 
civics,  economics,  and  sociology,  and  students  taking  courses  in 
pedagogy  should  use  such  material  for  planning  correlations  in  these 
subjects  to  bring  together  home  and  school. 

The  Extension  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  conducting  clubs  among  girls  and  older  women. 
Some  workers  are  engaged  directly  on  clothing  problems  and  can 
obtain  from  the  book  suggestions  which  may  be  of  service.  In 
eight  states  during  six  months  of  1919  the  teachers  and  students 
in  clothing  alone  exceeded  135,000.  Exhibits  should  be  collected 
by  the  Farm  and  Home  Bureaus  to  illustrate  important  lessons  in 
selection  which  can  be  used  in  clubs,  classes,  demonstrations,  and 
conferences.  The  chapter  on  "A  Clothing  Information  Buivan  " 
tells  how  to  organize  a  section  of  the  Farm  Bureau  which  will  bring 
practical  results  in  thrift  and  in  Americanization. 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  235 

It  is  important  for  the  retail  trade  to  consider  the  problems 
discussed  in  this  book.  The  new  consumer  desires  to  be  in- 
formed of  the  reliability  of  merchandise  offered  to  her.  The  store 
manager,  buyer,  and  sales  person  must,  therefore,  be  prepared  to 
give  the  wished  for  information.  Sales  may  be  lost  through  a  lack 
of  intelligence,  for  the  consumer  is  studying  textile  selection  and 
asking  for  good  merchandise  as  never  before  and  rightly  expects 
honest  answers  to  her  questions.  The  sales  persons  should  know 
how  the  stock  is  made,  whether  the  best  material  is  in  it  or  a  sub- 
stitute fiber,  and  whether  it  is  likely  to  wear.  They  should  know 
something  of  the  reputation  of  the  manufacturers  of  textiles  or 
ready-to-wear  clothing  whose  product  they  are  selling,  and  what 
purpose  the  fabric  or  garment  will  best  serve.  Classes  are  being 
opened  to  train  sales  girls  in  these  matters  and  to  study  the  con- 
sumer's problems.  Some  of  the  more  progressive  department 
stores  are  having  textile  testing  stations  to  help  the  buyer  to 
select  and  the  consumer  to  purchase  more  wisely.  This  is,  indeed, 
an  excellent  step  ahead.  In  smaller  stores,  where  a  laboratory 
cannot  be  installed  or  the  management  cannot  afford  to  connect 
with  a  large  testing  station,  some  one  of  the  force  could  apply  to  the 
textile  stock  the  tests  given  in  the  book  and  thus  help  the  patrons 
who  wish  guidance  and  protection. 

Textiles  in  the  Schools. — Good  courses  in  textile  selection  are 
found  in  some  schools  and  technical  institutions,  but  it  may  be 
said  with  truth  that,  in  general,  these  courses  deal  too  much  with 
historical  data  and  with  processes  of  manufacture  and  fail  to  teach 
adequately  the  selection  of  textiles  and  clothing  on  the  basis  of  the 
money  and  materials  available  in  a  neighborhood.  Before  the  war 
the  usual  sewing  courses  to  which  the  textile  work  was  allied  were 
largely  given  over  to  drill  on  stitches  and  to  making  a  few  gar- 
ments with  set  principles  which  were  supposed  to  be  of  service  at 
some  future  time.  The  conditions  of  war  time  caused  a  revision 
of  the  work  to  meet  immediate  needs,  and  help  for  the  unfortunate 
became  a  keynote.  Working  for  refugees,  soldiers,  and  hospitals 
was  stressed.  The  Red  Cross  called  for  supplies  in  quantities  and 
the  children  in  the  schools  showed  themselves  equal  to  a  huge  task. 
Economy  in  clothing  demanded  renovation  and  remodelling  of 
garments  and  careful  selection  of  fabrics  and  the  costs  of  clothing 
began  to  be  considered  more  than  ever  before. 


236  CLOTHING 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  future  courses  of  garment  making  may 
take  the  accomplishment  of  the  children  into  account  and  intro- 
duce more  rapid  construction  of  useful  articles,  which  have  a  com- 
mercial value,  that  overfine  detail  may  be  given  up  in  the  classes  of 
younger  pupils,  and  that  cost  and  good  taste  in  the  design  no  mat- 
ter how  simple  the  garment,  good  workmanship  for  the  purpose, 
and  wise  choice  even  of  inexpensive  materials  may  be  found  in  all 
classes.  Garment  making  for  other  people  (whether  for  members 
of  the  family  or  for  an  order,  for  charity,  or  for  sale)  should  take 
away  the  centralization  of  the  student's  thoughts  on  her  Wn  decora- 
tion and  should  protect  the  homes  of  those  of  small  income  from 
extravagant  demands  for  fabrics  to  use  in  school  classes. 

The  textile  subject  lends  itself,  in  the  fundamental  processes 
of  manufacture  as  they  were  practiced  by  primitive  people,  to  work 
in  the  earliest  grades  and  even  in  the  kindergarten.  The  sheep  can 
be  studied  and  the  wool  washed,  combed,  spun,  dyed  and  woven. 
Cotton  can  be  grown,  ginned  by  hand,  carded,  spun  and  woven. 
Silkworms  can  be  grown  and  silk  processes  developed,  and  flax,  also, 
can  be  grown  in  the  school  garden  and  rippled,  retted,  broken, 
scutched,  hackled,  spun,  and  woven.  Bleaching  and  calico,  printing 
can  be  done  by  the  children  in  the  school,  and  design  should  accom- 
pany the  work.  During  these  lessons  the  connection  with  the 
clothing  should  be  emphasized  and  the  choice  of  materials  and  their 
care  brought  continually  to  the  fore.  The  work  should  be  a  founda- 
tion for  later  intelligent  purchasfc.  In  later  grades  the  relation  of 
the  clothing  budget  to  shopping  for  garments,  and  the  care,  renova- 
tion, making  over  and  making  new  garments  in  relation  to  the 
family  purse  can  receive  more  specific  attention.  The  pupils  should 
make  tests  of  fabrics  and  give  their  conclusions,  collect  samples, 
and  identify  them,  giving  names,  values,  and  prices.  Practical 
tests  of  the  knowledge  gained  should  be  frequent  and  should  be  as 
near  to  a  shopping  experience  as  possible.  Pupils  should  be  taken 
on  shopping  trips  to  nearby  stores  and,  when  possible,  visit  textile 
factories  and  workrooms  which  are  making  ready-to-wear  clothing. 
The  contents  of  this  book  can  be  used  as  a  basis  of  development  for 
this  school  work. 

The  "Style  Show"  in  Education.— A  "Style  Show"  with 
living  models  is  an  excellent  way  of  impressing  a  year's  lessons  in 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  237 

textile  and  clothing  selection  and  construction  on  students  of  the 
technical  high  school  or  the  vocational  school.  The  mothers  and 
friends  of  the  students  can  be  invited  and  derive  benefit  also  from 
such  a  demonstration.  The  audience  room  of  the  school  is  a  good 
place  to  hold  the  exhibition.  The  students  taking  part  can  appear 
first  on  the  platform  and  later  walk  up  and  down  the  aisles  that 
those  present  may  have  a  closer  view  of  the  clothing. 

The  aim  of  such  a  display  is  to  emphasize  dramatically  the 
points  which  have  been  made  in  the  class  work,  such  as  the  reason 
for  choosing  a  certain  textile  for  a  gown,  the  suitability  of  the  style 
selected  for  future  use,  the  efficiency  of  the  gown  for  its  purpose,  the 
complete  cost  of  it,  the  relation  of  the  amount  spent  on  it  to  the 
annual  budget  allowance  of  the  owner,  the  endurance  of  the  cloth 
as  shown  by  tests  given  to  it,  the  hygienic  features,  and  the  line  and 
color  in  relation  to  the  personality  of  the  wearer. 

The  garments  can  be  the  work  of  the  dressmaking  class  and  the 
one  for  whom  the  gown  is  intended  can  wear  it  and  describe  the 
good  points,  or  a  speaker  appointed  for  the  purpose  can  give  the 
items  of  importance  as  the  girls  pass  by  her  on  the  stage.  Another 
way  to  obtain  the  garments  is  to  borrow  them  from  the  students, 
the  teachers,  or  from  friends,  or  to  interest  department  stores  in 
the  town  and  have  a  loan  of  ready-to-wear  clothing  selected  by  the 
students  to  represent  the  best  ideas  on  satisfactory  dress.  Special 
care  must  be  taken  that  borrowed  garments  are  returned  in 
perfect  condition. 

There  are  many  sides  of  the  question  of  dress  which  can  be  pre- 
sented at  an  exhibition  of  this  kind.  Varieties  of  gowns  can  be 
shown — the  every-day  dress  for  home,  school,  work,  or  business; 
the  tailored  suit;  the  house  gown;  heavy  or  light-weight  coats  or 
wraps ;  rain  coats :  the  party  dress ;  the  "  Sunday "  dress ;  the 
negligee;  children's  clothing;  hats  for  all  seasons;  caps;  shoes  and 
stockings.  The  contrasting  of  clothing  ideas,  also,  makes  a  good 
demonstration,  such  as  ready-to-wear  versus  home  or  custom  made, 
in  which  the  endurance,  the  appearance,  the  effect  of  laundry  and 
the  cost  can  be  presented.  The  difference  in  amount  of  material 
and  cost  as  dependent  upon  the  choice  of  the  pattern  from  which 
the  gown  has  been  made ;  or  price  variation  occurring  between  the 
use  of  plain  weaves  and  colors  as  against  stripes,  plaids,  and 


238  CLOTHING 

figures  are  worth  considering.  Garments,  underwear,  or  shoes 
showing  hygienic  features  can  be  contrasted  with  those  which  are 
less  healthful,  and  a  display  of  gowns  that  can  be  used  for  several 
occasions  and  thus  aid  in  the  economy  of  the  wardrobe  gives  inter- 
esting and  valuable  results.  In  Fig.  13  such  a  gown  is  shown. 
Made  over  and  remodelled  clothing  makes  an  excellent  demonstra- 
tion. This  book  contains  suggestions  for  carrying  out  these 
various  ideas. 

When  describing  the  gowns  in  such  an  exhibit  it  is  advisable  for 
the  one  wearing  the  dress  to  imitate  the  motions  she  will  be  called 
upon  to  make  while  wearing  it,  and  thus  make  clear  the  service  of 
the  garment.  For  instance,  a  dress  in  which  hard,  dusty  work  is  to 
be  done  must  be  especially  enduring,  as  there  will  be  great  strain 
upon  it;  it  must  be  of  a  color  which  will  not  show  soil;  it  must 
allow  freedom  in  the  movements  of  the  body ;  the  waist  must  not 
be  too  tight  and  the  sleeves  must  roll  up.  The  skirt  must  not  be 
too  long,  and  it  must  be  sufficiently  wide  not  to  impede  in  any  way. 
If  the  work  to  be  done  is  very  dirty  and  the  gown  must  be  fre- 
quently laundered  a  washable  fabric  should  be  chosen,  yet  some- 
thing must  be  selected  suitable  to  the  work  involved  and  with  the 
minimum  cost  in  view.  The  hygienic  features  are  always  impor- 
tant and  every  one  participating  in  the  show  should  wear  shoes  of  a 
sensible  shape  and  with  low  heels.  When  a  party  dress  is  being 
shown  the  model  could  wear  a  low-heeled  pump.  The  cost  of  the 
gown  should  include  the  probable  price  of  keeping  it  in  order.  The 
laundry  costs  can  make  a  cotton  dress  an  extravagance,  though  the 
initial  price  may  have  been  small.  The  trimming  of  a  gown  may 
make  an  otherwise  enduring  garment  a  care  and  an  expense. 

If  awards  are  offered  for  the  gown  which  shows  the  highest 
number  of  good  points,  a  jury  should  be  appointed  beforehand  and 
score  cards,  mentioning  the  qualities  to  be  noted,  given  to  each. 
After  the  exhibition  is  over  the  jury  can  meet  and  decide  upon 
the  results. 

A  woman's  club  can  carry  out  a  style  show  somewhat  similarly 
that  will  be  effective  in  impressing  better  textile  standards  on 
the  community. 

The  Motion  Picture  as  a  Teacher. — Textile  and  clothing 
manufacture  and  selection  can  be  profitably  taught  by  motion  pic- 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  239 

tures.  Courses  of  instruction  for  educational  purposes  on  subjects 
relative  to  the  home,  are  needed.  The  Government  has  some  films 
on  the  growth  of  raw  material  and  the  manufacture  into  cloth, 
and  there  are  commercial  textile  reels  available.  The  National 
Board,  Y.W.C.A.,  has  recently  prepared  a  moving  picture  to  illus- 
trate good  points  on  shoes  and  heels. 

Suggestive  Outlines  for  Clothing  Instruction. — There  are 
many  ways  in  which  textile  conservation  and  selection  can  be 
taught,  but  the  only  "  best  way  "  is  to  adapt  the  material  chosen 
directly  to  the  needs  of  the  people  or  community  where  the  subject 
is  to  be  considered.  The  following  outlines  show,  first,  work  that 
has  been  done  in  a  high  school  and,  second,  a  few  plans  based  on 
material  presented  in  this  book.  Such  outlines  can  be  used  for 
many  purposes  by  adapting  them  to  younger  or  older  people  and  to 
the  conditions  under  which  they  live.  For  example,  with  foreign 
born  listeners  the  simplest  language  should  be  used,  the  result 
should  directly  fit  into  the  home  life,  and  exhibits  should  accom- 
pany the  demonstrations  in  order  to  make  the  points  absolutely 
clear;  it  is  helpful  if  visitors  to  the  exhibit  can  take  home  some 
illustration  of  the  talk  that  they  have  heard,  such  as  a  pattern  for  a 
child's  dress,  samples  of  fabrics  that  are  not  expensive  but  will 
wear  well,  a  piece  of  cloth  from  which  a  spot  has  been  removed  or 
.which  has  been  tested  for  endurance. 

A.   A  HIGH   SCHOOL   COURSE  IN   TEXTILE  SELECTION,  LOS  ANGELES,   CALIFORNIA. 

(This  is  a  very  condensed  account  of  the  content  of  the  course.) 
First  Year. 

I.  First  semester. 

1.  Cotton,  analysis  and  discussion  of  materials. 

Collecting,    identifying   and    mounting  samples    as   to    range    of 

width  and  price  and  distinguishing  characteristics. 
Discussion  of  materials  as  to  quality,  design  and  color,  durability, 
suitability,  width   and  price,  amount  necessary  for  a  gown 
and  how  to  estimate  it,  setting  color,  shrinkage,  etc. 
Fiber,  growth  and  manufacture,  economic  value  of  cotton.  Fiber 

under  the  microscope. 
Underwear  materials. 
Hosiery.     Knit  Goods. 
The  Hygiene  of  Clothing. 

Sanity  in  Dress — Hair  dressing,  ear-rings,  face  powder,  French 
heels,  white  shoes  with  dark  dresses,  neatness  and  care  in  de- 
tails of  dress,  rapidly  changing  styles  and  extreme  styles. 


240  CLOTHING 

Laces.  Relative  value  of  hand  and  machine  laces.  Effect  of 
laundering.  Design.  The  lace  making  industry  in  this 
country  and  abroad. 

Embroidery.  Design,  material  on  which  the  work  is  done,  strength 
of  edge,  effect  of  laundering,  colored  embroidery,  cost,  etc. 

2.  Linen. 

Growth  and  manufacture. 
Dress  material  and  table  linen. 
Household  fabrics  in  cotton  and  linen. 

3.  Laboratory   tests  for  cotton  and  linen. 

II.  Second  semester.     Wool  and  silk  are  studied  in  a  way  similar  to  the 
plan  for  cotton  and  linen  in  the  first  semester. 

Second  Year. 

More  advanced  work  given  on  the  four  textiles,  household  furnishing  for 
a  bungalow,  cleaning  silk,  wool  and  gloves.     The  family  budget. 

B.    TOPICAL  OUTLINES  FOB  SCHOOLS,   CLUBS,  EXTENSION   AND  OTHER  WORKERS. 

The  Consumer's  Responsibility . 
I.  The  amount  spent  on  textiles  and  clothing  annually. 

1.  The  relation  of  women  and  girls  to  this  outlay. 

The  effect  of  their  influence  on  the  textile  factory  in  the  class  of 

goods  which  are  being  made. 
The  effect  of  their  influence  on  the  ready-to-wear  workrooms  in 

the  style  of  garment  made  and  its  endurance. 
The  effect  of  their  influence  on  the  retail  trade  in  the  abuse  of 

the  privileges  which  the  stores  have  granted. 
The  effect  of  their  influence  on  the  home  in  the  excessive  use  of 

money  for  clothes. 

2.  The  present  need  for  economy. 

The    condition    facing    the    United    States    and    the    countries 

of  Europe. 
The  Thrift  Movement  and   its  meaning. 

3.  What  women  should  do. 

Feel  their  responsibility  as  citizens  of  this  country  and  do  their 

part  in  the  reconstruction  of  industry. 
Feel  their  responsibility  in  international  relations. 
Become  better  judges  of  textiles  and  clothing. 
Use  business  methods  in  the  conduct  of  their  homes. 
Regulate  their  ideas  of  dress  according  to  ethics  and  economics. 
Learn   how  to  make  estimates  of  their   income  and   live   under 
a  budget. 

Rome  Factors  Involved  in  Textile  Selection. 

I.  The  business-like  manner  of  conducting  the  purchase  of  the  wardrobe. 
II.  Some  knowledge  of  textile  fibers,  their  properties,  and  their  uses  for 
different  fabri<  - 

III.  Sufficient  knowledge  of  manufacturing  processes  to  judge  if  a  cloth 

is  well  made. 

IV.  The  prices  of  fabrics  in  relation  to  probable  reliability. 


PLANNING  FOR  CLOTHING  PROGRESS  241 

V.  Selection  of  material  above  the  minimum  standard  at  which  it  will 

be  enduring. 

VI.  The  names  and  recognition  of  standard  cloths  in  all  four  textiles* 
VII.  The  names  of  reliable  textile  mills. 
VIII.  The  names  of  reliable  retail  stores. 
IX.  Tests  of  fabrics  which  may  indicate  their  condition. 
X.  Good  purchasing  habits. 

Choosing  a  new  gown. 

I.  The  purpose  for  which  the  gown  is  intended  and  the  textile,  color  and 

style  most  likely  to  meet  requirements. 

II.  The    possible   repairs,   laundry   or   cleaning   costs   of   various   kinds 
of  gowns. 

III.  Contrasting  all  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  garments 

from  which  the  selection  is  to  be  made,   including  the  health  of 
the  wearer  in  relation  to  the  garment. 

IV.  Comparing  the  various  expenses  incident  to  the  garments  under  con- 

sideration with  the  amount  the  budget  allows  to  be  spent. 
V.  Deciding  which  gown  best  fulfils  all  of  the  needs. 

Making  a   Clothing  Budget. 

I.  The  high  cost  of  living  requires  care  in  textile  selection.     The  family 
buyer  cannot  afford  to  be  careless.    The  cost  of  clothing  in  1921  ia 
gradually  being  reduced,  but  is  still  far  above  pre-war  prices. 
II.  What  a  clothing  budget  is,  how  to  make  one  and  the  effect  it  isi  likely 
to  have  in  increasing  economy  in  those  who  use  it. 

III.  Estimating  the  yearly  expenses  for  clothing  on  the  basis  of  what  has 

been  spent  in  former  years. 

IV.  Deciding  how  many  partly  worn  garments  can  be  renovated  or  dyed 

and  still  serve.     The  cost  of  getting  them  in  order. 
V.  L;  sting  the  minimum  of  new  clothing  required  for  the  year  with  the 

probable  cost. 

VI.  Comparing  these  estimates  with  the  amount  of  money  to  spend. 
VII.  Deciding  on  headings  for  the  budget. 

VIII.  Trying  out  the  budget  for  a  month  to  see  if  it  is  workable.  Grad- 
ually correcting  headings  and  estimates  until  a  serviceable  result 
has  been  attained. 

A  Practical  Lesson  on  Selection. 

A  good  sized  collection  of  samples  of  all  four  textiles  from  which  a 
group  of  students  can  select  and  list: 

1.  Distinguishing  between  the  materials  and  placing  them  in  groups. 

2.  Giving  the  name  of  the  fiber  or  combination  of  fibers  after  some 

simple  tests. 

3.  Giving    approximate    values    to    the    fabrics    within    one    group 

and  price. 

4.  Choosing  fabrics  for  garments  for  different  purposes  considering 

appearance,  fastness  to  light,  ability  to  launder  well,  firmness  of 
weave  and  durability. 

16 


242  CLOTHING 

5.  Choosing   inexpensive  yet   enduring   materials. 

6.  Selecting    the    staples. 

Mounting  samples  and  listing  qualifications  on  a  card  catalogue. 

Care  and  Reclamation. — A  Demonstration. 

I.  Orderly  household  methods  of  keeping  old  clothing  and  odd  pieces 

of  cloth. 
11.  The  work  of  the  "ragmen"  and  junkmen  in  this  country  and  what 

becomes  of  the  garments.    Shoddy  and  Wastes  and  their  uses. 
III.  What  to  do  with  old  pieces  which  we  do  not  wish  to   sell  to  the 

ragman. 

IV.  Demonstration  of  methods  to  use  in  many  kinds  of  care,  repairing, 
making-over,    laundering,   spot  removal,   steaming  and   pressing, 
folding  garments  away  for  the  winter,  the  right  and  wrong  way 
to  put  on  stockings  and  gloves. 
V.  The  possible  annual  saving  from   such  care, 


APPENDIX 

MADE-OVER  GARMENTS 

THE  Frontispiece  of  this  book  shows  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  making  over  the  clothing  of  older  people  for  children.  The  five 
children  shown  are  dressed  in  such  clothing.  The  little  boy  to  the 
extreme  left  has  a  sweater,  leggings,  and  cap  made  from  an  old 
sweater  of  his  father's.  The  girl  with  the  doll  next  to  him  has  a  dress 
made  from  a  light-weight  one-piece  gown  of  her  mother's.  The 
corduroy  coat  and  cap  worn  by  the  next  girl  with  the  skates  has  been 
made  from  her  mother's  coat.  The  coat,  leggings,  and  cap  of  the  boy 
with  the  sled  and  the  Russian  coat  of  the  boy  who  is  running  are 
made  from  suits  of  the  father  and  older  brother. 

The  charts  for  the  making  over  of  clothing  which  follow  show 
the  result  of  instruction  given  by  Mrs.  N.  B.  Judy  at  the  University 
of  Washington,  Seattle,  Washington.  The  record  is  of  work  actu- 
ally done  by  the  students  of  the  university  and  by  home  makers 
of  Seattle  who  came  to  Mrs.  Judy  to  help  them  to  the  best 
conservation  methods. 


A  good  use  for  an  old  skirt  is  to  make  a  kimono  dress  with  bloomers  for  a  little  girl. 

243 


244 


APPENDIX 


A  young  child's  winter  coat  can  be  made  from  an  old  wool  skirt. 

a* 


A  little  boy's  dresa  ye*  made  successfully  from  his  mother's  old  skirt. 


APPENDIX 


245 


A  circul  r  skii  c  and  a  coat  of  blue  serge  were  turned  and  cleaned  with  ammonia  and  made 
into  an  attractive  cape-coat.     It  was  finished  with  military  braid. 


Old  knitted  fabrics  can  be  used  in  many  ways  such  as:  A.  A  pair  of  child's  stockings 
can  be  made  from  two  pairs  of  long  white  silk  gloves.  B.  One  pair  of  black  cashmere  stock- 
ings will  made  a  pair  of  stockings  for  a  child.  C.  The  sleeves  taken  from  two  large  shirts 
made  a  baby's  shirt.  D.  Children's  stockings  quickly  wear  out  at  the  knee.  It  is  an 
economy  to  make  leather  caps  from  old  shoe  tops  to  cover  the  knee.  E.  Good  caps  can 
be  made  from  old  football  stockings. 


246 


APPENDIX 


/•*" 


/7V 


A  serge  gown  in  many  pieoes  made  a  charming  dress  for  a  little  girl.    Hand  embroidery  was 
placed  on  the  collar  and  cuffs. 


A  pair  of  rompers  were  made  from  three  short  sleeved  gingham  waists  belonging  to  a 
ten  year  old  boy.  The  collar,  cuffs  and  pocket  were  decorated  with  the  flat  buttonhole 
stitch  in  white  cotton  and  the  belt  had  a  little  embroidery  on  the  buttonholes. 


APPENDIX 


247 


1 

rr 

1  1 
i 

\ 

\ 

1 

** 

1 

1 

1 

-  -L. 

] 

A.  A  badly  worn  boy's  jacket  made  a  box  pleated  skirt.  Much  of  the  cloth  was  too 
damaged  to  use  and  piecmgs  were  covered  by  the  belt.  B.  An  attractive  dress  for  a  twelve 
year  old  girl  was  made  from  an  all-wool  gown  bought  at  a  sale  for  $3.98.  It  had  been  worn 
three  years  yet  was  worth  making  over. 


M. 


•*?"  <jouj)/e 

A  flannel  suit  for  a  little  boy  was  made  from  two  of  his  father's  shirts. 


248 


APPENDIX 


A  three-quarter  coat  of  rough  finished  cloth  which  did  not  show  piecing  was  made  into 
a  long  coat.  The  large  double  collar,  the  broad  belt  and  the  deep  facings  made  this  possible. 
The  coat  was  dropped  from  the  shoulder  and  a  deep  yoke  was  put  on.  A  new  lining  was 
needed  and  came  to  the  edge  of  the  coat  as  the  facing  had  been  used. 


cu.ff 

'cuff 


Uck 


3d' 


*J 


r  t  w^ujt  for  a  girl  can  be  made  from  a  man's  negligee  shirt 


APPENDIX 


249 


A  boy's  worn,  mud  and  paint  stained  suit  of  good  material  was  cleaned  with  ammonia  and 
turpentine  and  turned  to  the  wrong  side.     It  made  a  substantial,  warm  suit  for  a  child. 


5 


A  strung,  stylish  overcoat  for  a  boy  was  made  from  a  moth  eaten  cadet  coat.    All  damaged 
and  weak  material  was  avoided  when  cutting  it  out. 


250 


APPENDIX 


-fro-m 


A.  A  man's  faded  fleece-lined  shirt  was  dyed  blue  and  made  into  a  Teddy  Bear  suit 
for  a  child.  It  was  finished  around  the  neck  and  sleeves  by  crocheted  beading  and  edge  of 
heavy  white  crochet  cotton.  6.  A  child's  bib  was  made  from  pieces  left  after  cutting  out 
an  apron. 


Qfue  Serye   Szt/t 
tyr  o/d 
Tttacte  /TVTTt 


A  woman's  suit  coat  was  carefully  ripped  and  darned  with  ravelings  of  the  material  and  made 
a  good  serge  suit  for  a  little  boy. 


APPENDIX 


251 


A  dress  for  a  little  boy  was  made  from  a  worn  striped  gingham  skirt  trimmed  with  bias 
bands.    The  bands  were  used  to  trim  the  dress. 


\Tr.»£f,         4>>ir  ,«U  c~t    '  I.H  si  «/e   co-f         *<~t  </o*U<     f+*< 


252 


APPENDIX 


A  spotted,  faded  blue  gingham  dress  was  washed  and  rinsed  in  strong  bluing  water, 
turned  on  wrong  side  and  made  into  a  child's  skirt,  with  collars,  cuffs  and  belt  to  go  with 
a  waist  of  white  muslin. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lippincott's  Home  Manuals. 
Clothing  for  Women,  Baldt. 
Housewifery,  Balderston. 
The  Business  of  the  Household,  Taber. 
Home  and  Community  Hygiene,  Broadhurst. 
Millinery,    Tobey — To   be   issued. 
.Successful   Family  Life,   Abel. 

Textiles,   Woolman   and  McGowan,   Macmillan. 

Shelter   and   Clothing,   Kinne   and   Cooley,   Macmilhm. 

Clothing   and   Health,   Ki-nne   and   Cooley,    Macmillan. 

Dressmaking,  Fales,   Scribner. 

The  Dreissmaker,  Butterick  Publishing  Company,  New  York. 

Household   Textiles,   Gibbs-Whitcomb,   Barrows.   Boston. 

Cleaning  and  Renovation  at  Home,  Osman,  McClurg,  Chicago. 

How  We  Are  Clothed,  Chamberlain,  Macmillan. 

Thrift  Clothing,  Hedges — Talbot,  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 

American   Dressmaking   Step  by  Step,  Pictorial   Review  Company. 

Sowing  Handicrafts  for  Girls,  McGlauflin,  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 

The  Institute  of  Modern   Sewing,  New  Haven,  Conn.      (12  books). 

Hygiene  for  the  Worker,  Tolman,  American  Book  Company. 

The  Care  of  the  Body,  Cavanagh,  Dutton. 

The  Human  Mechanism,  Hough  and  Sedgwick,  Ginn. 

Personal  Hygiene,  Saunders. 

Clothing  and  Health,  Kinne  and  Cooley,  Macmillan. 

Family  Expense  Account,  Brookman,  Heath. 

The  Use  of  Money,  E.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Bobbs,  Merrill. 

Increasing  Home  Efficiency,  Bruere,  Macmillan. 

The  Family  Budget,  Leeds,  Temple  University,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Woman  Who  Spends,  Richardson,  Whitcomb  and  Barrows. 

Industrial  Art  Text  Books,  Snow  and  Froelich,  Prang. 
Batiks  and  How  to  Make  Them,  Pieter  Mijer,  Dodd,  Mead. 
Dress  Design,  Talbot  and  Hughes,  London,  1913. 

Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture,  Mason,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Origin  of  Inventions,  Mason,  Macmillan. 
Handloom  Weaving,  Hooper,   Macmillan. 
Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  Earle,  Macmillan. 

Cotton  Spinning,  Marsden,  Macmillan. 
Cotton  Weaving,  Marsden,  Macmillan. 
Wool  Spinning,  MacLaren,  Cassell. 
Textile  Fibers,  Mathews,  Wiley. 
The  Textile  Industries,  Murphey. 
Textiles,  Dooley,  Heath. 

253 


254  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Textiles,  Barker,  Van  Nostrand. 

Textiles,  Nystrum,  Appleton. 

Productive  Sheep  Husbandry,  Coffey,  Lippincott. 

Textiles,  Woolman  and  McGowan,  Macmillan. 

Manual  of  Weave  Construction,  Kastanek,  Guild  and  Lord. 

Textiles  and  Clothing,  Watson,  American  School  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics, Chicago. 

Textiles  and  Clothing,  McGowan  and  Waite,  Macmillan. 

The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant,  Wilkinson,  Appleton. 

Yarn  and  Cloth  Making,  Kissell,  Macmillan. 

Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics  and  their  Application, 
Polleyn-Scott,  Greenwood  &  Son,  London. 

The  Sheep  Industry  in  Canada,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  Min- 
istry of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Sheep  Husbandry  in  Canada,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Silk  Manufacturing  and  Its  Problems,  Chittick. 

Lace  Dictionary,  C.  R.  Clifford,  New  York. 

Practical  Home  Millinery,  Reeves,  Longman,  Green. 
The  Art  of  Millinery,  Ben  Yftsuf. 

Correspondence  Course  in  Millinery,  Ora  Cne,  New  York  Institute  Domestic 
Arts  and  Sciences. 

Dyeing  of  Textile  Fibers,  "Hummel,  Cassell. 
Principles  of  Dyeing,  Fraps,  New  York. 

Laboratory    Manual    of    Dyeing    and    Cleaning    of    Textile    Fabrics,    Mat- 
thews, Wiley. 
Dyes  and  Dyeing,  Pellew,  McBride. 

BULLETINS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  FARM  BUREAUS 

(This  material  is  in  part  mimeographed  and  from  one  to  sixty  pages  in 
extent.     New  numbers  are  issued  at  intervals.) 

Arizona. — Agricultural  College,  Extension  Service,  Tucson. 
Clothing  Projects. 

Arkansas. — State  Agricultural  College  Bulletin,  Fayetteville. 
Varieties  of  Cotton. 

Georgia. — State  College  of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga. 
Bulletin  of  Winter  Short  Courses  in  Home  Making. 

Idaho. — Idaho  University,  Boise,  Extension  Division. 
The   Selection   of   Clothing   for   Children. 

Illinois. — University  of  Illinois  Extension  Work,  Urbana 
Conservation  of  Clothing. 
Suggestions  for  Garment  Making. 
Fashion,  its  Use  and  Abuse. 
Artistic  Dress. 
Color  in  Dress. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  255 

Indiana. — Purdue    University,    Department    of    Agricultural     Extension, 

Lafayette. 

Textiles — Problems  in  Buying,  Cleaning  and  Dyeing. 
New  Uses  for  Old  Clothing. 

Iowa. — State  College  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Divfsion,  Ames. 
Planning  the  Costume. 
Household   Conservation,   Four   Parts — Food,  Textiles,   Health,    Home 

Management. 

Wool   Saving  Project  and  Project   Agreement. 
Textiles — Their  Care  and  Use. 
Household  Accounts. 
Suggestions  for  Thrift  Week. 
News  Letter  to  Home  Demonstration  Agents. 
Expense  Account. 
Short  Cuts  in  Sewing. 

Kentucky. — College   of   Agriculture,   Lexington. 
Textiles — Adulteration   and  Tests. 
Hints  on  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  of  Textiles. 

Maine. — State  Agricultural  and  Industrial  League,  Inc.,  Portland. 
Facing  Clothing  Facts. 
Dividing  Your  Day  and  Your  Dollar. 

Michigan. — Agricultural  College,  Extension  Department,  East  Lansing. 
Series    of    pamphlets : 

Kemodelling;  The  Sewing  Machine;  The  Sewing  Room;  Household 
Textiles;  How  to  Store  the  Summer  Wardrobe  and  to  Prepare 
the  Winter  Wardrobe;  The  Consumer's  League;  The  Hygiene  of 
Clothing;  Home  Dressmaking  Patterns  (alteration  and  use) ;  How 
to  Buy  Clothing;  Simple  Rules  of  Costume  Design  and  Good 
Taste  in  Clothing;  How  to  Know  Materials;  Layettes;  Women's 
Clubs  and  the  Clothing  Problem.  The  Dress  Form — Fitting  Gar- 
ments; Clothing  for  Children;  The  Care  of  Clothing  and  Clothing 
Problems  for  1918. 

Minnesota. — The  University  of  Minnesota,  Extension  Division,  St.  Paul. 
Clothing  Conservation  for  Home  and  Community. 
Wartime  Textiles  and  Home  Clothing  Situation. 
Outline   for   a  Clothing   Conservation   Program. 
Textiles— What  Every  Homemaker  Should  Know. 
Course   in   Clothing  Economics. 

Missouri. — College  of  Agriculture,  Extension   Service,  University  of  Mis- 
souri, Columbia. 

Materials  Used  in  Extension  Work. 
Wartime  Economy  in  Clothing  and  Household  Textiles. 
Notes   from  the  Textile  World. 
Conservation  of  Clothing— Remodelling. 
Projects  for  Work. 


256  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nebraska.  —  University  of  Nebraska,  Extension  Service,  Lincoln. 
Conservation  of  Clothing. 
Chemical  Testings  of  Material. 
Care  of  Clothing  and  Cleaning. 

Helpful  Material  for  Home  Economics  Club  Talks. 
Standardized  Costume  for  Women. 
Economy  in  Buying. 

How  Can  I  Make  My  Clothes  Last  Longer? 
Comparison  of  Textile  Fabrics. 
Suggestions  for  Designing  Clothing. 
Sewing  Equipment. 
Alteration  of  Patterns. 
Color  Combination  in  Clothing. 
The  Planning  of  an  Economical  Wardrobe. 

New  Hampshire.  —  College  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Service,  Durham. 
Thrift  in  Clothing. 

New  Mexico.  —  College  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Service,   State  College. 
Girls'  Sewing  Club  Lessons  and  Instructions. 

New  York.  —  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Division,  Ithaca. 
The  Laundry  —  Cornell  Reading  Course  Series  1-No.  3. 
Hints  on  Choosing  Textiles. 

Clothing   Conservation    Projects.      (Points    for    Consideration.) 
Thrift   Bulletins  —  Accounts,    Budgets,    etc. 

North  Dakota.  —  North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural   College 

P.  O. 
Helps  for  the  Home  Dressmaker. 

Pennsylvania.  —  State  College,  State  College. 
Children's  Clothing. 
Undergarment  Making. 
Dressmaking  at  Home. 
Care,  Repair  and  Remodelling  of  Clothing. 

Rhode  Island.  —  State  College,  Extension  Division,  Kingston. 
Thrift  in  Clothing. 
Project,  Organization  of  Clothing  Salvage  Shops. 


Scuth  Carolina.  —  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  Collr^r.   Rock  Hill. 
Four-year  Sewing  Course  for  Girls'  Home  Decoration  Clnhs. 
Economy  in  Clothing. 
Laundering. 
Textiles  and  Clothing. 
Home  Laundering. 
Renovation  of   Clothing. 

Tennessee.  —  College  of  Agriculture,    Extension   Division,    Kn<>\\  ill.-. 
Projects  from  which  agents  can  sHrrt.  such  as: 
The  Study  of  Materials  for  Different  Kinds  of 
Care  of  Clothing  in  the  Hbim*. 
Courses  of  Sewing. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  257 

Vermont. — College  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Division,  Burlington. 
Care  of  Wool  Garments. 
Some  Facts  About  Cotton. 
Some  Facts  About  Wool. 

Washington. — The     State    College    of    Washington,     Extension     Division, 

Pullman. 

The  Home  Cleaning  of  Clothing. 
The  Homemade  Dress  Form. 
Remodelling  of  Clothing. 

Wisconsin. — University  of  Wisconsin,  Extension  Division,  Madison. 

Outlines    for    Agents — Organization    of    Home    Economics    Extension 

Schools. 

Study  of  Textiles — Cotton,  Linen,  Silk  and  Wool. 
War  Conditions. 

Suggestions     for  Activities  in  Clothing  Salvage  Centers. 
Making  Clothes  Last  Longer. 
Renovating,  Dyeing,  etc. 

Wyoming. — University  of  Wyoming,  Division  of   Extension,  Laramie. 
Sewing   Club   Project. 

Oregon. — Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Extension  Division,  Corvallis. 
Some  Points  in   Choosing  Textiles. 
Clothing    Conservation — Part    I,    Remodelling.    Part    II,    Cotton    and 

Linen  Materials.    Part  III,  Woolen  and  Silk  Materials. 
Sewing  Club  Projects. 

GOVERNMENT   PUBLICATIONS 

Department  of  the  Interior,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Circular,  September  5,  1917. 

Home  Economics  Teaching  Under  Present  Economic  Conditions. 
Work  of  School  Children  During  Out  of  School  Hours.     No.  20. 
Clothing  Conservation. 
Bibliography  of  Home   Economics,  Bulletin,   1919,  No.   46. 

United    States    Department    of    Agriculture. 

States  Relations  Service,  Extension  Work  with  Women. 

Home  Care  of  Clothing — Part  I,  On  the  Care  of  Cotton  and  Linen 
Fabrics  for  Use  in  Rural  and  Urban  Work.     Part  II,  Home  Care 
of  Clothing. 
Good  Buying. 

Hand  Book  for  Home  Demonstration  Agents. 
Farmers*  Bulletins. 

Removal  of  Stains  from  Clothing. 
Selection  and  Care  of  Clothing. 
Experiment  Stations  Bulletins. 
Fiber  Flax. 
The  Cotton  Plant. 
Useful  Fiber  Plants  of  the  World. 

17 


258  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  Standards. 
No.  70,  Materials  for  the  Household. 
No.  75,  Safety  for  the  Household. 

Department  of  Labor. 

Monthly  Labor  Review  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 
Children's  Bureau  Publications. 

Prenatal  Care,  Mrs.  Max  West. 
Infant  Care,  Mrs.  Max  West. 
Child  Care,  Mrs.  Max  West. 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Clothing  for  the  Family.     Bulletin  23.    Home  Economics  Series. 
House  of  Representatives. 

Report  of  the  Tariff  Board  on  Schedule  K,  2  volumes. 

Hearings  on  the  Longworth  Dyestuffs  Bill. 

Hearings  on  Truth  in  Fabric,  1921. 

The  Wool-growing  Industry,  U.   S.  Tariff  Commission,    1921. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Sewing  Efficiency,  Griest  Manf.   Co.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Dressmaking  Made  Easy,  "Women's  Institute  of  Domestic  Arts  and  Sciences, 

New  York. 

Books  on  the  Household  Arts,  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 
Health  of  the  Worker,  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company,  New  York. 
From  Wool  to  Cloth,  American  Woolen  Company,  Boston. 
The  Mark  of  Quality,  Whitall's,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Tops,  The  Arlington  Mills,  Lawrence,  Mass. 

Why  Know  About  Cotton?    Outline  General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs, 
Teachers  College,  New  York  City. 

Annotated  List  of  Books  Relating  to  Household  Arts. 

The  Determination  of  Cotton  and  Linen. 

Hints  on  Clothing. 
Minnesota   Women's  Committee,   Council   of   National   Defense. 

Why  Should  We  Save  Wool. 
University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  Department  of  Household  Science. 

Some  Points  in  Choosing  Textiles. 
Dressmaking  as  a  Trade  for  Women.    Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 

Union,  Boston. 

Silk,  Its  Origin,  Culture  and  Manufacture,  Corticelli  Co.,  Florence,  Mass. 
Publications  of  National  Consumers'  League,  New  York. 
College  of  Industrial  Arts,  Denton,  Texas, 

How  to  Use,  Care  for  and  Buy  the  Family  Wardrobe. 

Suggested  Clothing  for  the  High  School  Girl. 
Reworked  Wool,  Samuel  Dale,  Boston. 

The  Making  of  a  Trade  School,  Woolman,  Whitcomb  and  Barrows,  Boston. 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  Philadelphia. 

Baby's  First  Clothes. 

Economical  Makeovers. 

The  Bride's  Book, 

Helpful   Suggestions  for   Making   Children's   Clothing. 

Hat  Frame  Making. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  259 

Keep   the   Baby   Well,    published    by    Rhode   Island    Slate   Federation   of 

Women's  Clubs,  Dept.  of  Public  Health. 

The    Study    of    Textiles — Crooks,    American    Home    Economics    Associa- 
tion,   Baltimore. 

Anti-Stain  Formulary,  Central  Scientific  Co.,  460  E.  Ohio  St.,  Chicago 
A  "  Clothing  Information  Bureau,"  Women's  City  Club,  Boston,  Mass 
The   Manufacture,    Dyeing,    Printing    and    Finishing    of    Textiles.     W     E 
Parker,  Pacific  Mills. 

MAGAZINES  AND  PERIODICALS 

Bulletin  of  the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers.   Annual  Wool 

Review,  issued  yearly.     Boston. 

Report  of  the  National  Association  of  Cotton  Manufacturers,  Boston. 
The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  1211  Cathedral  St.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Textile  Colorist,  Philadelphia,  Pa- 
Women's   Wear,    Fairchild   Publishing   Company,   New  York. 
The  Textile  -World  Journal,  Boston,  Mass. 
Textiles,  Boston. 

Dry  Goods  Economist,  New  York. 
Fiber  and  Fabric,  Boston,  Mass. 

Manual  Training  Magazine,  Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 
The  Delineator,  and  other  Butterick  publications,  New  York. 
Woman's  Home  Companion,  New  York. 
Good  Housekeeping,  New  York. 
School  Arts  Magazine,  Boston. 
Dressmaking  at  Home,  Chicago. 
American  Dressmaker,  New  York. 
The  Modern  Priscilla,  Boston. 
Ladies  Home  Journal,  Philadelphia. 


GLOSSARY 

See  index  for  further  information  on  terms.     Names  of  fabrics  are  ex- 
plained in  the  chapters  on  the  different  fibers. 
Aniline.    The  base  of  many  of  the  coal  tar  dyes. 
Batik.  A  primitive  method  of   resist  dyeing  by  which  the  design   is  first 

put  on  the  cloth  with  wax  and  when  the  fabric  is  dyed  the  design  is 

not  colored.     It  was  practiced  largely  in  Java  and  is  being  revived  at 

the   present  day    for   decorative   effects. 
Battening.  To   drive   up  the  filling  threads   in   weaving. 
Beetling.  A   finish   on   linen   or  cotton   cloths  given   by  beating   down   the 

woven  fabric  with  small  hammers  on  a  cylinder. 
Boiling-off.     Removing  of  the  gum  from  reeled  silk  by  boiling. 
Boll.  The  pod  of  the  cotton  plant  which  contains  the  cotton  fibers. 
Breaking.  Crushing    the    woody    portion    of    the    flax    stalk    after    it    has 

been  retted. 

Budget.  A  financial  estimate. 
By-product.  An  accessory  product  resulting  from  some  specific  process. 

Calendering.  A  final  finish  by  which  cloth  is  pressed  with  rollers. 

Carbonizing.  Removing   vegetable    matter    from    wool    by    acids. 

Card  Clothing.  The  fine  teeth  or  wires  which  are  on  the  carding  cylinders. 

Carding.  A  cleaning  and  combing  of  wool  or  cotton  fiber  preparatory  to 
spinning. 

Clips.     The  cuttings  from  the  manufacture  of  new  garments. 

Combing.  A  process  for  laying  fibers  in  perfect  order  which  sometimes  fol- 
lows carding. 

Conditioning.  A  process  by  which  the  normal  amount  of  moisture  is  re- 
stored to  textile  fibers. 

C.  O.  D.  Collect  on  delivery  of  goods. 

Count.  The  number  given  to  yarn  to  indicate  its  fineness. 

Cutters-up.     Makers    of    ready-to-wear    clothing. 

Decorticating.     Stripping  off  the  bark  or  outer  co;it. 

Discharge  printing.     A  process  which  takes  the  color  out  of  a  dyed  fabric. 

leaving  a  design  where  the  chemical  acted. 
Distillates.     The    product    separated    by    vaporization   or    distillation    and 

then   condensed. 
Domestic  System.     A  term  used  to  express  the  handwork  in  households  and 

small   workrooms,  which   method  of  production   preceded   the   factory 

system. 

Ends.     The  warp   threads:      See  Warp. 
Extract  wool.     See  Remanufactured   Wool. 

Felting.     The  thickening  of  wool  from  shrinkage.     The  term  milling  and 

fulling   are   also   used    for   this   process. 
Fit»roin.     The  fiber  of  silk  after  the  gum   is  removed. 

Filatures.     Machines  for  silk  reeling  which  are  used  in  place  of  hand  reels. 
Filling  threads.    The  cross  threads  in  weaving.     See  weft. 


GLOSSARY  261 

Fleece.  The  wool  shorn  from  the  sheep. 

Flocks.  Soft,  short  fibers  which  have  been  shorn  from  the  surface  of  cloth. 

Floss  silk.  A  name  used  for  spun  silk. 

Fulling.  See  Felting. 

Garnetting.  Reducing  thread  waste  to  fiber  again. 

Gassing.  Singeing  off  protruding  ends  of  fiber  by  gas  flames.  The  same 
result  is  obtained  by  red  hot  copper  rollers  over  which  the  cloth 
is  passed. 

Gauze.  A  light  fabric  made  by  crossing  the  woven  threads  as  the  weav- 
ing proceeds. 

Gigging.  A  machine  for  roughing  up  the  surface  of  cloth  preparatory  to 
shearing  it.  The  terms  raising  and  napping  are  also  used  for  the 
process. 

Ginning.  Separating  the  seeds  from  the  cotton  lint  after  the  cotton  is 
gathered  from  the  field. 

Gore.    A  slanting  cut  in  cloth  which  aids  in  fitting  garments. 

Gun  cotton.  An  explosive  made  of  cotton  linters  mixed  with  chemicals. 

Hackling.  The  method  by  which  flax  fiber  is  combed. 
Hard  wastes.     See  Wastes. 

Harness.  The  collection  of  healds  or  heddles  for  the  control  of  the  loom. 
Healds  or  heddles.    Cords  or  wires  having  loops  or  eyes  through  which  the 
warp  threads  pass  in  the  loom. 

Junkmen.  Men  who  trade  in  waste  materials. 

Larva,  The  first  stage  of  an  insect  after  leaving  the  egg.    Plural,  larvae. 
Lathe.  The  battening  attachment  of  the  loom. 
Leno  weave.  Plain   and  gauze  weaving  combined. 
Line.  The  long  flax  fibers. 

Lint.  The  cotton  fibers  as  they  are  removed  from  the  seeds. 
Linters.  The  down  which  covers  the  cotton  seeds  and!  which  is  removed  and 
used  for  low  grade  cloth  and  other  purposes. 

Mangling.  Pressing  and  smoothing  a  fabric  under   rollers  which  may  or 

may  not  be  heated. 
Mercerizing.  Treating  cotton  with  caustic  alkali.     The  fiber  will  contract 

in  the  bath,  but  if  kept  from  so  doing  becomes  lustrous. 
Middleman.  One  who  buys  in  bulk  from  the  producer.     A  consignor. 
Milling.  See  Felting. 

Xapping.  See  gigging. 

Noils.  Short  fibers  remaining  in  the  comb  after  the  combing  process. 

Organzine.  Strong  twisted  silk  yarn  used  for  warp. 

Pelt.     The  skin  of  the  sheep  with  the  wool  on  it. 

Picker.  A   machine   which   opens   up   and   cleans   cotton   lint.  See   Shoddy 

Picker. 

Picking.  The  process  of  putting  in  the  filling  threads. 
Picks.  The  woof  threads.     See  Weft. 
Properties.  Special  qualities. 


262  GLOSSARY 

Pulled  wool.  The  wool  removed  from  the  pelts  of  dead  sheep.  The  skin  is 
treated  with  chemicals  or  the  wool  is  sweated  off.  Also  called  skin  or 
dead  wood. 

Re-agent.  Any  chemical  agent. 

Reclamation.  The  saving  or  salvage  of  material  \\hich  would  otherwise  go 
to  waste. 

Reed.  The  cords  or  wires  through  which  the  warp  threads  pass  on  the  lathe. 

Reeled  silk.  Silk  filaments  removed  from  the  cocoons  but  not  yet  twisted. 

Remanufactured  wool.  Fiber  obtained  by  reducing  cloth  or  waste  again  to 
a  fibrous  condition.  The  term  shoddy  has  been  used  for  this  wool. 
but  this  term  is  being  replaced  by  others  such  as  reclaimed  wool,  re- 
generated wool  and  reworked  wool.  The  wastes  in  the  processes  of 
manufacture  previous  to  spinning  are  called  "  soft  wastes,"  and  the 
wool  from  yarn,  cloth  and  rags  is  termed  "  hard  waste."  Extract 
wool  is  taken  from  union  materials.  The  vegetable  matter  is  removed 
by  carbonizing  it  out,  leaving  only  the  pure  wool. 

Resist  printing.  Printing  a  design  on  cloth  with  chemicals  which  will 
therefore  be  unaffected  by  later  dyeing  of  the  cloth.  (See  Batik.) 

Retting.  Rotting  the  flax  stalks  in  order  to  remove  the  liax  fibers  from  the 
woody  portion. 

Rippling.  Removing  the  seeds  and  leaves  from  the  stems  of  the  flax  plant. 

Roughing.  A  coarse  combing  of  the  flax  fiber. 

Roving.  The  last  process  before  spinning. 

Salvage.  See   Reclamation. 

Schreinerized  cotton.  Cotton  which  has  a  special  treatment  to  give  it  the 

effect  of  mercerization  or  of  silk. 
Scroop.     The  slight  rustle  of  silk. 
Scutching.  Beating.  Knocking  off  woody   particles  adhering  to  flax   fibers 

after  the  breaking  process.   Cleaning  out  the  dirt  in  cotton  lint  by  beat- 
ing and  shaking. 
Seconds.  Manufactured  articles  or  fabrics  which  have  some  defect  and  are  , 

sold  at  a  reduced  price. 

Seed  cotton.     Cotton  seed  with  the  fiber  still  attached  to  it. 
Selvedge  or  selvage.    The  sides  of  cloth  (as  it  comes  from  the  loom)   where 

the  filling  or  woof  threads  turn  back  over  the  warp  or  ends,  making 

a  firm  edge. 

Sericin.     Silk  gum,  a  waxy  substance  holding  the  filaments  of  silk  together.  ' 
Serrations.     The  scales  on  the  surface  of  wool. 

Shed.  The  opening  in  the  warp  through  which  the  filling  passes  in  weaving. 
Shives.    The  woody  fragments  separated  from  flax  by  breaking. 
Shoddy.  See  Remanufactured  \\<>nl. 

Shoddy  Picker.     The  machine  used  to  reduce  cloth  to  fiber  again. 
Singles.  Silk  yarn  which  has  no  twi.-t. 
Slashing.  A  term  used  for  the  dressing  of  cotton  and  other  yarns  to  keep 

them  from  rubbing  rough  in  weaving.     Sizing. 
Sliver.  A  slender  untwisted  rope  of  cotton  or  wool  prepared  for  drawing 

out  and  twisting.   The  primitive  term  in  Colonial  days  was  the  "  roll." 
Slub.  A   process   in  preparation   for   spinning   in    which  'a  slight  twist  is 

given.     It  follows  the  drawing  process. 
Soft  waste.    See  Waste. 


GLOSSARY  263 

Solvent.  A  fluid  which  will  dissolve  substances. 

Souple  silk.  Silk  from  which  one-sixth  of  the  gum  has  been  removed. 

Spindle.  The  stick  on  which  the  spinning  is  done. 

Spun  silk.  Silk  yarn  which  has  not  been  reeled.     It  is  made  from  varieties 

of  waste  silk. 
Staple.  The  length  of  a  fiber.     Goods  which  are  commercially  established. 

The  principal  production  of  a  country. 

Substitutes.  A  term  used  to  express  the  use  of  one  fiber  for  another. 
Synthetic.  A  combination  of  several  elements  into  a  new  form. 

Teazel.  A  vegetable  growth  which  has  a  flower  head  covered  with  hooked 
bracts.  It  is  used  to  rub  up  the  surface  of  wool  cloth  preparatory  to 
shearing  the  surface.  Mechanical  substitutes  for  the  tea/el  are  used 
in  some  grades  of  fabrics,  but  the  vegetable  growth  is  preferred,  as  it  is 
less  apt  to  injure  the  cloth. 

Thrown  silk.  The  processes  for  making  silk  yarn  and  which  follow  the 
reeling.  It  is  a  method  of  spinning. 

Tops.  The  long  wool  fibres  prepared  for  worsted  yarn  by  thei  comb- 
ing process. 

Tow.  The  short  flax  fibers  separated  from  the  line  in  the  hackling  process. 

Tenter.  The  drying  of  cloth  after  washing  or  finishing  is  done  on  a  long 
rack  or  table  called  a  tenter. 

Tram.  Silk  yarn  used  for  woof  or  filling.  It  is  not  as  closely  twisted  as 
the  organzine  or  warp  yarn. 

Vigoureux  printing.  A  method  of  printing  the  slub  before  spinning. 
Virgin  wool.    Wool  shorn  from  the  sheep,  before  being  manufactured. 

Warp  or  ends.  The  yarn  running  lengthways  of  the  cloth. 

Waste.  Ends  broken  off  in  the  process  of  spinning  yarn,  of  making  cloth, 
or  from  cloth  in  the  process  of  garment  making  or  from  old  clothing 
and  rags.  The  term  is  used  in  silk  manufacture  to  designate  silk 
from  many  sources  other  than  the  reeled  silk.  In  wool  manufacture 
soft  wastes  are  obtained  from  the  preparatory  spinning  process  and 
hard  wastes  from  spun  yarn  and  woven  cloth. 

Weaver's  glass.  A  small  magnifying  glass  used  to  determine  the  weave 
of  a  fabric. 

Weft,  woof,  picks  or  filling.     See  picking.     The  cross  threads  in  weaving. 

Weighting.  Adulteration  or  loading  placed  in  silk  before  dyeing. 

Wool  in  grease.     Unwashed  wool  as  it  comes  from  the  sheep's  back. 

Woolens.  Materials  made  from  wool  fibers  which  have  been  carded. 

Worsted.  Materials  made  from  wool  fibers  which  have  been  combed. 


INDEX 


Absorbent   cotton,   31,    37 

Abuse  of  privileges-,  110,  111  (see 
Retail  Trade) 

Accessories  to  dress,  75,   139,    150 

Accounts,  11,  109,  166 

Acid    dyes,    201 

Adequate  American  methods  in 
clothing,  226 

Adhesive  plaster,  182  ' 

Adornment,  4 

Advertising,    108 

Aeroplane  cloth,  28 

Agent  for  spot  removal,  212 

Agricultural  Department  Extension 
Service,  215 

Aim  and  work  of  a  Clothing  Infor- 
mation Bureau,  216,  221 

Alcohol,  61,  189,  212,  214 

Alertness,    6 

Alkalies,  60,  212,  214 

Alkaline   soaps,    70,    150 

Alizarine   dye,   60 

Alpaca,   22,   24 

Alum,    210 

Allurement,   5 

American  Aniline  and  Chemical 
Company,  199 

American  design,   12,   133 

American  Dye  Industry,  12,  119, 
198-203,  209,  210 

American,  Home  Economics  Asso- 
ciation, 10,  230,  231 

American    made   merchandise,    12 

American  wool,  14,  15 

Americanization,  226,  227,  233,  238 

Ammonia,  204,  212,  214 

Amyl   acetate,  214 

Analysis  of  cloth,  116,  117,  238 

Angora  sheep,  15 

Aniline  dyes,   198,   199 

Animal  dyes,  198 


Animal  fibers,  198,  203,  204 

Annals,    10 

Appearing  well  dreissed,  3,  152,  154, 

155 

Appropriate  dress  for  occasions,  fac- 
tor in  wear,   13S,   184,  237 
Approval  goods,  107,   110,  218    (seq 

Retail  Trade) 
Aprons,  7,  80,   157,  184 
Arches  of  feet,  92    (see  Shoes) 
Architecture,  5 
Arkwright,    Richard,    35 
Army,  7 
Art  Alliance  of  America,  135 

in  United  States,  132,  133 

principles  in  dress,  133,  142,  143 
Artificial    dyes,    198,    201 

leather,  75 

silk,  57,  61,  116 
Artist,  7 

Artistic  clothing,  133 
Associations     of     dress     designers, 

133 

Attract,  5 

Attractive  dress,   135,   140,   154 
Awning   material,   31,   40 


B 


Bagging,  33 

Balanced    account,    166 

Bale,  27,  33 

Baling,  27,  33 

Bannockburn,    20 

Bargain    sales,    107,    108 

Basic   dyes,   2O1 

Basket  cloth,  20 

Batik,   133,  204 

Batiste,  31,  40,  71,   158,   159 

Batting,  158 

Beadwork,    133 

Beauty,   1 

Bedford  cord,  20,  21 

Beetling,   38,    66,    70,    73 

265 


266 


INDEX 


Belgian  flax,  64,  67-69 
Belting,  38,  73 
Belts,    135,    140 
Benzine,    191,   211,   212 
Bertha,    5 

Better   standards  of  dress,  237 
Biennial  Dress,   122,   124 
Billiard  cloth,  15,  20,  21 
Blankets,    24-26,    38,    43,    116    (see 
representative      material      under 
Wool) 

Bleaching,   28,   34,   66,   70,   73,   211 
Blends,  22 

Bloomers,    4,    95,    98,    160,    161 
Blouses,  37,  125,  133,  148,  150,  151, 

155,   160,  205,  210 
Blue  7,  207 
Body  Health,  3,  6,  82,  86,  87,   161, 

162    (see  Hygiene  of  Clothing) 
Bolivia   cloth,    20 
Boll  weevil,   33 
Bombyx  mori,  48 
Boots  (see  Shoes),  9 
Borax,  61,  66,  207,  208,  209,  212 
Boston  Common,  217,  228 
Breaking  test,  114 
Breeding,  5 
Brill iantine,  20,  22 
'Broadcloth,    15,   20-23 
Brocade,  7,  53 

Broken  arch  of  foot   (Flatfoot),  92 
Brussels  net,   178 
Buckram,    189 
Budget,  accounts,    11,    109,    166 

amount  to  spend  upon,  102,  219 

basis,    101,    144,    145,    147 

clothing,  11,  101,  144,  220,  231, 
240 

cost  table,  170,  171 

details  for  clothing,  167,  168 

divisions    144,    146-148 

estimates,    109,    169,    172,    240 

factor  in,    145,    151 

general,    144 

income,   101-103,  110.  144,   145, 
149,    153,    157,    164,    T67 

inventory,    104 

making  a,  240 

percentage  of  incomes,  144,  145, 
147,   151- J 53 

personal  expenditures,  144.   1  l  • 


Budget  planning,  101,  105,  109,  144, 

146,   164,   165,   168 
recommendations,    166,    230 
representative,    147 
studies,   147-150,   153 
suggestions,  163,   166,  167 
tabulation,  164-168 
training,    109 
typical  clothing 

business  woman,    172 
employee,   169 
professional  woman,  146 
working  girl,   168 
varying,   102 
Budget    Bureaus,    216 
Bunting,  20 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,   161 
Burlap,  24 

Burning  test,  61    (see  Tests) 
Business  methods,  11,  108,  110,   112 
dress,     121,    130,     133,     154,     162, 

184,    185,  226 
Women  8 

Butcher's  linen,  70 
Buyer,  10,  34,  44,  100,  102,  108,  109 

(see  Consumer) 
Buying,    1,    11 

the  best,  184 
By-products,    17,   33,   67 


Calendering,  36-38 

Calico,   30,    31 

Cambric,  36,  40 

Campaign    for   simple   school   dress, 
162 

Camphor,    1 85 

Camisole,  86,  155 

Canvas,  28,  31,  70 

Cap,  5,  7,  8 

Carbonizing,  17,  19 

Card  catalogues,  104,  110,   118,  225 

Carding,  18,  20-23,  36,  65 

Care,  acting  quickly,  176 
cleaning,    180,    190,  239 
clothing,  11,  44,  108,  234,  220 
cotton   clothing,    177,    180 
demonstration  on,  241 
dry  cleaning,   198,  211 
qffect  carelessness,  176,  177 


INDEX 


267 


Care,  gloves,  183,  184,  190,  191,  230 

hints   for,    190 

in  dyeing,  60 

knitted  goods,    177 

laundry,  191,  210 

linen,  66,   181 

methods,  175 

millinery,    186,    189 

moth,   185 

pressing,  191 

prolonging    life,    156,    173,    179 

proper,    10,    11 

putting  away  clothing,  185,  186 

reinforcing,   178 

renovating,   152,  241 

repairing    190    (see   Repairing) 

rubber,  80,  81 

saves  money,   174 

silk,    180-,     181,    239 

spots,  176,   191    (see  Spots  and 
Stains) 

stockings,    80,    176,    177,    181- 
183 

supplies,   179,   182,   185,   188 

systematic,    174,    175,    178,    179 

underwear,    176 

various    articles,    181 

wool,    179,    180,    239 
Carriage  of  body,    132 
Carriers,   89 
Cartridge  cloth,  47 
Casings,  40 
Caster  Oil,    181,    182 
Caustic    potash,    or    caustic    alkali, 

37,  63,  116 
Cellulose,  61,  116 
Challie,  20,  22,  31 
Chambray,  31,  39 
Chamois   gloves,    76 
Changes,    TO 
Changing    patterns,    142 

styles,  11 
Charge  account,  102,   105,   110,  111, 

112,  220    (see  Retail  Trade) 
Channeuse,  54 

Chart   of    clothing    interests,    216 
Cheerfulness,   7 

Chemical    regulation   of   body,    83 
Chemicals,   28,   37,   38,  66,  70,    106, 
114-116,  185,   198,   199,  201-,  206, 
207,  210,  212-214 


Chemises,  56 

Chenille,  88 

Cheviot,  20 

Chiffon,   138,   155,   184,   189 

Children's   Bureau,   158 

Child  welfare  exhibit,  174 

Chinchilla,    24,    42 

Chintz,  39 

Chittick,  James,  61   (note  at  bottom 

of  page) 
Chloroform,   212 

Choice     or    selection     clothing,     10, 
42,  101,  158,  240 

color,    136,    139 

economical  ways,  114,  137,  154, 
231 

factors  involved,   151,  239 

intelligent    methods,    132,    232 

method   of,    151 

motion  picture  as  a  teacher,  237 

practical  lessons  on,  238,  240 

resolution   on   textile   selecting, 
230 

style  show  as  a  teacher,  237 

textiles,    114,   216 
Citizen,   9 
Class  distinction,  7 
Classes,   233 
Clay,  36,  118 

Cleaning,  211    (see  Laundry) 
Clearing  house  of  agencies,  217 
Clippings,  225,  227,  228 
Clips,  19,  49 
Cloak,    7 
Closets,  11 
Cloth,     10,     11 

Clothing  (see  also  Dress  and  Ward- 
robe) arctic  regions,  87 

army,   126 

art  in  U.  S.,   132,   133 

artistic,    133 

basis  of  purchase,  107 

beauty,    210,    220 

budget,  125,  126,  151 

business  women,   154,   162,   163, 
184,    185,   236 

buying,  113,  114,  137,  151,  157 

care,  11,  108,  124,  173,  179,  211 

children  of  school  age,  160,  184, 
236 

choice,    12,    37,    101,    132,    142 
157,    230,    237 


268 


INDEX 


Clothing,  climate,  84,  137,  138,   152 
college  girls,  62,   163,   184,   185 
color,  1,  6,  7,  136,  137,  162,  198 
comfort,  6 
commandments,  220 
committee    of    standardization, 

231 

conditions  of  manufacture,  220 
convenience  in,  222 
corsets,   11,  91,   178,  209 
cost   11,  69,   122,  137,   148,   159, 

160,    170,   171,  231,  234,  236, 

237,  239    (see  Cost) 
cotton,   153   (see  Representative 

Materials ) 
curtailing     extravagance,     107, 

131,   177 

custom   made,    155 
dangers,  98,  116 
different   ideas   concerning,    157 
economic,   10,   11,   51,   126,    139, 

216,    220,    234 

efficiency,  96,  97,  151,  216,  222 
elaborate,  161 
enduring,    103,    106,    129,    162, 

176,   184 

Europe  and  United  States  dur- 
ing  War,    15,    125,    126,    12!). 

131,    173 

exhibits,   226,   227 
expenditures,    130,    149,    167 
fitted  to  purpose,  183 
foreign,   86,   93,    133 
fostering   simple,    162 
hat,  188  (se<>  Millinery) 
heavy,    89 

high  school,  161,  162 
hygiene,  82-90,  97,  220,  231,  237 
ideals,  6,  103,  106-108,  219,  222 
inappropriate,    127,    161 
infants,   157,   158 
influence,    4,   5 

Information  Bureau.  215.  233 
intelligence,    13,3,    21!),   234 
inventory,    I'M 
knit,  85,  87,  95,  97,  176 
linen,  70,  71,  74 
lists,  104-106,  126,  181 
little   children,    S,    158,    184 
looking  over,  137 


Clothing,    making    of,    11,    44,    137, 

139,    140,    153-155 
medium  weight,  31,  54 
men's    clothing,    124,    129,    154, 

178 
minimum  of,  13-1,  132,  155,  150, 

161 

money,  103 
muslin,   133 

National  Association  of  Manu- 
facturers   of    Women's    Gar- 
ments,  125 
needed,    101 
not  worth  buying,  56 
old,  20,  129,  139,  240 
outing  garments,    1~>2 
planning,    103,    151,    154,    157 
porous,  69,  72,  83,  89,  90,  97 
problems,   1,   101,  233 
progress  229,  230 
rapid  changes,  19,  106,  220 
ready  to  wear,  9,   11,   128,   133, 

143,    153-155,    160,   216,    218, 

234 

repair,  178 
research,  217 
remodeling    and    renovating,    8, 

11,    103,    109,    137,  220 
rubber,  80,  88 
service,    13,    128-130,    157,    1S4, 

229 

silk,   96 
situation,  127 
slovenly,  127,  132 
sport,    8,     136 
standards,    125,    126,    12!).    US. 

151.   222,   229,   2:52,   233,   237, 

240 

storage,   104   126,   180,   181,  231 
-tvle   show,    2:5."> 
teaching,     1«5,     177,    217,    233, 

2:w  2 1 ! 

typical   questions    a  I. out.    218 
undergarments    09,    85,    !)0.    !)}. 

M-Qfl 

uiKMiduring,  36,  37.  •">!).   103,  106 
nimere^ary.     10.") 
value,  1,  2 
weight,   10 

woolen  elotliing.    ]«».   s",  95 
working  girls,    1(12-164 


INDPJX 


269 


Clothing,  workrooms,  216 

worsted,   20,  22 
Clubs,  121,  122,  229,  232,  233,  237- 

241 

Coal   tar   products,    198 
Cockle,    24,    73 
Coffee  and  tea  stains,  212 
Collecting   samples   of   textiles,   238 
Colors,    1,   6,   7,    134,    136-130,    142, 

143,   162,  200-202,  210 
Combing  machines,  22,  23 
Comfort,   6 
Commandments,  220 
Commercial   dyes  for  coloring  hats, 

188 

Committee  for  a  Clothing   Bureau, 
223 

on  Standardization  of  Textiles, 

213 

Commonsense,  3 
Community  centers,  215,  333 
Community  Motion  Picture  Bureau, 

238 

Comparing  cotton  and  linen,  71 
Complexion,  8 
Complementary,  7 
Composition   soles,   75 
Concentration,    *8 
Condition    of    manufacture,    229 
Conduction,    83,    84 
Conservation,   buying   the  best,    184 
Conservation  campaign,   173 

clothing,    135,    197,    215,    216 

during  war,    173 

duty,   137,    130 

enduring   clothing,   48 

general   habits  of  life,    173 

hats,    187 

ideals   of,    219,   220 

labor,  218 

plans,  139 

saving   time,    177,    178 

Strict   economy,    131,    135,    139, 
145 

textiles,  31.  192,  215,  238 
Constant   temperature  of   body,   82, 

88 

Construction,  11 

Consumer    (buyer  or   housekeeper), 
active,  10,  229 

desires  honest  statements.  52 


Consumer,     cooperation,     31,     111, 

112,  137,  202,  203,  230 
department  stores,  110,  111,  234 
duty,  42,  44,   48,  52,   112,   113, 

119,  229,  230,  240 
economical,    37,    38 
gaining  intelligence,  10,  41,  42, 
100,    102,    108-112,    118,    157, 
216,  229,  233,  237 
ignorance,  10,  102,  105,  108,  113, 
.       H9 

improved   conditions,    1 19 
increasing  thrift,   10,   119,    157, 

216 
influence,  10,  100,  112,  119,  124, 

160,  203,  216,  233 
information    for,    229 
manufacturers,  203,  233 
patriotism,    12,    119,   203 
responsibility  9,  10,  11,  14,  48, 

2$) 
tendency  to   extravagance,    101, 

102,    105-107 
thoughtless,   113 
wishes,  3 
Convection,  84 
Cooling,    7 

Cooperation,  111,  112 
Corduroy,  31,  42,  150,  157 
Corkscrew  cloth,  20 
Correlation,  233 
Corsets,  5 
Costs,   abuse  retail   privileges,    110, 

112     (see    Retail    Trade) 
accessories,  150 
advance  in,  14,  29,  30,  121,  137, 

147-150,   160 
being    well    dressed,    152,    154, 

155,   164 

comparative    costs,    155 
cotton,  28-30,   34,   42,   100,   106 
dye  a  factor,  60,  202 
expenditures   for   clothing,    129, 
149,   150,   156,   159,   160,   164, 
234 

gloves,  76,  148,  150 
government  expenses,   173 
hosiery,  55,  78,  79,  105,  148,  149 
knit  goods,  78 
labor,   28,    100,    160 
laundry,  56 


270 


INDEX 


Costs,   feather,   75,   76 
linen,   64,   66,   69 
living,    131 
making,    106 
millinery,    186,    187 
minimum,    159,    160 
related  to  wear,  231,  239 
renovation,  192,  239 
shoes,  75,  76 
silk,  46,  47 
table  of,  170,  171 
underwear,  55,  148,  150 
wool,  14,  157,  158 
Contest,  7 

Cotton,  cloth,   153    (sec  Representa- 
tive Materials) 
clothing,    22,    42,    95,    96,    129, 

(see  Clothing) 
conditions,  27-29 
countries,  28,   31,  32,  39 
costs,  29,  30,  42 
crop,  baling,  of,  27,  33 
bad  condition,  33-,  34 
boll  weevil,  33,  34 
by-products,    27,   33 
enemies,  33 

fiber,  32,  35-37,  62,  71,  114 
ginning  of,  33,  35 
grading,    34 
growers,    34 
hulls,   39 

importance   of,    27,    28 
inflammability  of,  38,  41,  43 
kinds:      Arizona,    2 
Brazil,   32,   34 
California,    32 
Egyptian,    32,    34 
Gulf,  32,  34 
India,    32 
Peeler,  32,  34 
Peru,  32 
Pima,   32 

Sea  Island,  32,  34,  58 
Upland,  32,  34 
lint,   27,   33,  41 
linters,  28,  33.  1  i:> 
long  staple,  32,  34,  38 
picking,    32-34 
press,  33 
raw,  28,  34 
re-compress,  33 


Cotton    crop,    seeds,    32,    33 
short-staple,  32,  38 
size  of,  28,  32 
staple,   32 
dangers,  37,  38,  41,  58,  70,  115, 

116 

design,   39,  42 
dyeing,  28,  34,  36,  38,  39,  41-43, 

116 

goods,   134,   135    (see  Represen- 
tative Materials) 
growing   country   of  the  world, 

27 

hygiene,    42,   43,    83,    84,    206 
ideals,    144 
industry,    34 
knit  goods,  42,   43,   77,   85,   87, 

143,    177 
linen  fabrics,  20,  23,  24,  38,  56, 

71-73 

machinery,   35 
manufacturing,  beetling,  38 
bleaching,  28,  34,  36,  211 
calendering,  37,  38 
carding,    36 

chemically   treated,   28,    47 
combing,  36,  38 
costs,  29,  30,  34 
dressing  and  finishing,   24, 

25,  36-38,  41,  44 
Europe,  27 
gassing,  38 
gigging,  38 
grading,  34 

linen  effects,  31,  37,  38 
mercerizing,  28,  34,  37,  38, 
54,  58,  61,  62,  64,  70,  77, 
78 

mills  28 

napped  surface,  41,  43-,  115 
noted  inventors,  35 
printing,    37,    :<!> 
silk   effects,   31,   37,   3S 
spinning,    27,    33-37 
si/ing    or    slashing,    38,    41, 

tentcring,  38,  44 
twilled  goods,  42 
weave,   34,  37,  42,    f  I  \ 
wool    effects,    31,    38,    78 
oil,  33,  37,  41 


INDEX 


271 


Cotton,  printing,  37,  39,  42 
properties,  38,  40 
representative   material,    absor- 
bent, 31,  37 
aero   wings,   3,   28 
awnings,  31,  40 
bagging,    40 
bath    wrappers,    43 
batiste,  31,  40,  71,  158, 

159 

beetling,  38 
binding,  40 
blankets,  24^26,  38,  41, 

43 

braids,    40 
brussels  net,    178 
burlap,  24 
calico,    30,    31 
cambric,    36,    40,    158 
canvas,    28,    31,    70 
casing,  40 
challie,    31 

chambray,   31,  39,   158 
cheese  cloth 
chemicals,    28,    37,    38, 

66,    144-116 
chenille,  38,  41 
chinchilla,  24,  42 
chintz,    39 
cloth  and  canvas  shoes, 

75,   76 

collars  and  cuffs,  140 
corduroy,   31,-  42,    157, 

158 

covert,  31,  42 
cr§pei,  31,  39,  158,  159 
cretonne,   31,   36,   39 
denim,    31,    42 
Devonshire,  39,  158 
dimity,  31,  44,  117 
dressy    wear,    31 
drilling,    31,   36 
duck,  4,  87 
embroideries,   39,   40 
findings,  39 
gabardine,  31,  42 
galatea,   31,  42,   159 
gauze,   44 
gingham,    30,    31,    34, 

38,  39,  117,  158,  160 
gloves,    77 


Cotton,      representative      material, 

gray  goods,  39 
gun   cotton,    15,    115 
hosiery,  41,  42,  50,  57, 

78,  79,  115 
hospital    use,    31 
household    service,    31, 

64,    68,.    69 
huckaback,    38,    71 
Indianhead,  42,  74,  159 
in  place  of  linen,  31,  38 
in  place  of  silk,  31,  34, 

38,  47 

in  place  of  wool,  31,  38 
jean,  31,  42,   159 
khaki,   31,    36,   42,    87, 

89,    159,   201 
kindergarten  cloth,  31, 

39,  158 

knit  goods.  42,  43,  54, 

177 

laces,  7,  31,  39,  41,  70, 
71,  74,   135,   186 
kinds,    cluny,    40 
countries,   40 
Filet,    40 
Irish,    40 
machine  made, 

74 

Torchon,  40 
Valenciennes, 

40 

lawn,  31,  34,  37,  39,  41 
^^  lining,   31 

lisle  thread,  38,  58,  77 
longoloth,  31,  158,  159 
madras,    31,   39 
medium    priced     dress 

goods,    31 

mercerized,  damask.  38, 
61,  64,  68,  69,  71,  72 
mull,    36 

muslin,    30,    31,    36 
nainsook,    31,    36,    117, 

158,    159 
napped  surfaces,  41,  43, 

89,   115 

organdie,    31,    34,    37 
outing  flannel  and  flan- 
nelette,   31,    41,    42, 
115,  118 


272 


INDEX 


Cotton,      representative      material, 

passementerie,        39, 

40 

percale,   31,   30,    158 
pile  fabrics,  42,  43,  157 
pillow   cases,   40,    71 
pique,  38,  42,    159 
^  plush,  42,  157 
^>  poplin,    39,    159 

porous    underwear,    40 

(see  Clothing) 
print    goods,    39,    158 
rugs,  40 

sails,  40,  67  70,  87 
sateen,  37 

seersucker,  37,  39,   159 
serge,  31,  42,  44 
sewing   thread,    31,    71 
sheeting,  30,  31,  40,  69, 

71 

shepherd's    plaid,    41 
shirting,    34,    62 
shoddy,  25 
Silkaline,  39 
stockings,    41,    42 
suitings,    34 
sweaters,  42,  177 
Swiss  muslin,  40 
tapes,    40  ' 
ticking,   69 
tires,  28,  31 
towels,  bath,  44 

cotton,  43,  71,  72 
tea,  41 
turkish,   43 
trowsers,  34 
undermuslins,  41,  74 
underwear,   40,   60,    72 
underwear,         knitted, 

23,  40,  42,  55,  60,  Bfi, 

72,   156 
unenduring  fabrics,  41, 

43-45 
union  goods,  20,  23,  24, 

38,     56,     71-73,    95, 

113-116,  230 
velveteen,    31,    34,    38 

42,    157,    187 
voile,  31,39,  41,42,  206 
warm  outer  wear,  31 
shrinking  before  making  up,  21 1 


Cotton,  silk  fabrics,  31 

situation,  27,  68 

service   gowns,    157 

tests,  35,  39,  42,  71,  114-117 

uses,  95,   96,   129 

wax,  37,  69 

weave,   41-43 

wool  fabrics,  17,  22,  24,  25,  113, 
115,  116 

yarn,  22,  34,  36-39,  42,  58,  114, 

115 
Courses  of  sewing  and  dressmaking, 

161 

Coverall    aprons,    157 
Covert  cloth,  31,  42 
Crepe,    20,    23,    31,    53,    54,    56,    60, 

117,  159 
Crofting,  66 
Crompton  Samuel,  35 
Crossing,    15 
Culture,   7 
Custom  trade,    155 
Cutters-up,    11 


Daily  papters,   10 

Damask,    38,    67,    71,    72,    110,    190 

Dangers,  97,  98 

Delivery  of  goods,   111    (see  Retail 

Trade) 

Demanding   honest   statements,    109 
Democracy,  7 
Demonstration,   215,    231,   233,    236. 

241 
Department  of  Agriculture,  14,  112, 

215,    229 
Debutante,   8 
Department  stores,  87,  102,  110,  179, 

218,   233 

Dependable  goods,    119 
Design,  5,  10,  42,  67,  132,  135,  160, 

176,   222,    239 

Detachable   sleeves,    131,    135 
Developed   dyes,  201 
Diagnosis   3 
Dia-Miml.  22,   117 
Disiper.    71 
Dinrt  'lyes,  201 
Discharge  dyeing,   203 
l>i-«-ussions,  233 


INDEX 


273 


Disinfectants,    206 

Dissatisfaction   with   present   dress, 

122 

Doeskin,    2O 

Domestic  workrooms,   35,   36 
Draperies,  7 
Drawers,  11 

Dress,  accessories  of,  58,  76,  77,  106, 

107,    130,    139,    150,    157,    158 

appropriate,    12,   127,   128,   130, 

131,    184 

aprons,    7,    157,    184 
artistic,   5 
attractive,    138 
basis,    133 
beauty  and   dignity,   3,   5,    126, 

132-135,   150 

biennial   dress,   159,   160,  222 
bloomers,    98,    16O 
blouses,   37,    86,    107,    125,    148, 

150,  151,  155,  161,  184,  222 
business,  121,  126,  128-130,  154, 

157,  162,  184,  185 
changing  fashions,  58,  106,  109, 

126,  154,  202 
characteristic,  7 
children,  little,  8,  157,  158,  160, 

161,    184 
choosing  a  gown,  113,  132,  139, 

140,  150,  151,  155,  240 
coat  or  wrap,  97,  106,  113,  115 
college,   162 

color   for,   134,   136,   139,    142 
conservative,  12 
cost  of,  121,   147-151,  160 
demonstration   of,   236 
design,    13-2,    133,    135,  239 
discordent,   5 
distinctive,  8,   134 
durable,   131 
dressmaking,  137,  159,  160,  192, 

222 

eras   of   beautiful    dress,    139 
extravagant,   3,   4 
extremes  of   fashion,    121,    122, 

132,  136,  137 
fostering  simple  and   healthful 

dressing,  127,  162,  211,  229 
frivolous,   8 
girls',   162 

good  taste,   138,   140,   142,   152, 
154 
18 


Dress,    harmonious,    13-2,    133,    136 
hats,  90,  130 
heavy,  6 

High    School   girls,    160,    161 
hints,  133,  134 
ideals,  98,  99,  114,  122,  124,  128, 

130,   131,  222 
immodest,   6 
inappropriate,  3 
importance,    1-8,   127,   136,    152 
incorrect  dress,  130,  161 
infant's  clothing,  97 
influence,  4,  7-9 
injurious,   6 
keeping  in  good  condition,  177, 

183,    184 

laws  governing,  133 
limited  wardrobe,   135,  161 
making  over,  161 
mending,    178 
modesty,   132,  220 
older  women,  137 
one    piece   gown,    161,    194 
overalls,    138,    157,    163,    184 
over-dressed,   3,  4 
past,  6 

patterns,  139,  140,  142,  193,  218 
pattern   selection,   236 
personality,   6,   132,    139,   151 
phases,    126 
pockets,   130 
poor,  4 

principles  of,    129-132 
rapidity  in  dressing,   140,    142, 

222 

ready   to   wear,    114 
refined,  5 
religious,  5 

Russian   blouses,    125,    133,    161 
sanity  in,  90-94,  161,  162,  238 
sensible,  5,  8 

shoes,  12,  92,  93,  106,   132,  136 
simplicity,    5 
slight  figure,  140,  143 
special  occupations,  7,  138,  157, 

162,  185 
somber,  8 

stout,  the  figure,  7,   140,  145 
styles,   12,  132,  136 
sweaters,    97,    177 
tailors,    191,    192 
tight,    130,    162 


274 


INDEX 


Dress,  trimming,  131,  133,  134,  138- 

140,   158,   160,   176,  237 
trousers,  138 

tunic,    122,    133,    135,    136,    138 
unattractive    dress,     132,     138, 

139 

underf  rocks,  135 
underwear,   56,   85,   87,   94,   96, 

07,  106,  107,  113,  150,  211 
uniforms,  7,  8,  126-128,  136 

138 

variations  in  taste,  151 
vulgar,  3,  5-7 
waistcoats,  157 

wearing  light  loose  porous  gar- 
ments, 89,  90,  96,  97 
wearing  old  clothes,  220 
well-dressed,    4 

Dressmaking,  154,  155,  192,  193 
Dr-essing  or  Sizing,  37,  38,  70,  73,  74, 

114,  117    (see  Finishing) 
Drilling,  31,  36 
Dry  cleaning,  193,  211 
Duck,   31 

Duplicate  printing,  39 
Durable  dress,   131 
Duty  to  conserve,  137,  130 
Duvetyn,  20 
Duvet  de  laine,  20   • 
Dyes    and    dyeing,    acid,    203 
alizarin,    60 
American,  12,  41,  119,  198-203, 

209,    210 
American  Aniline  and  Chemical 

Company,  199,  200 
aniline,  198,  199 
animal  dyes,  198 
fibers,  116,  198,  203,  204 
artificial,   198,  201 
ha>is.    199,  203 
bath,  204 

by-products  of  coal   tar,    199 
cheap,  202 
chrome,    201 
rlsi-sifioation.  201 

|]    l;u    distillates,    198,   199 
commercial  dyes.  204 

for  coloring  hats,  188 
tinting    powders     206 
cotton,  39,  41,  114,  116,  201,  205 
compound,  200.  J<H 


Dye,  control  of  disease,  198 
cross,    203,    205 
developed,  201 
direct,  201 
discharge,  203 
Dupont  Company,  199,  200 
England,    198,   202 
explosives   and   gases,    198 
factor   in  expense  of   cloth,    11, 

202 
fastness,  24,  37-39,  41,  48,  109, 

200-202 

foreign,    203,    210 
France,   198,  202 
fugitive,    98,    115,    199,    202 
Germany,    198,  200-203 
home,  23,  204,  205,  230 
intermediates,    199,    203 
laundry   as   factor   in    fastness, 

200 

legislation,  202 
linen,  70,    115,   116 
men's   suitings,    202 
mineral,    198 
natural,    198 
piece,    39,    52,    205 
properties  of  fibers  as  factor  in 

fastness,   200 

pure,  48,  51,  52,  55,  60,  114,  180 
raw  stock,  39,  202 
renovation,    195 
resist,  203,  205 
skein  or  yarn,  49,  119,  203 
slub,    39,   202,   203 
silk.  47,  48,  52,  53,  55,  59,  60, 

116,    119,    180,    181,  201 
situation,   209 
soap,    204 

solution  of,  201,  202 
standard,  201,  202 
stockings,  79 
streaking,  41 
sulphur,   201 
synthetic,    \W 
textiles,   73,   74,   201 
tinting.    -20.").    206 
union  ^-oods.  204 
war    problems,    198,    199,    201 
women's  H.itliinir.  202 
wool,   116,  201.   2H2 
vat  dyes,  200,  20 1 


INDEX 


275 


Dye,   vegetable,    198 

vegetable,  fiber,  198,  204 
Vigoureux,   204 
weighting   after,   59 
yarn,  39,  52,   158 

Dynamited    silk,    59 


Easily   adjusted    dress,    142 

Eccentricity,  5 

Economy,  3,  6,  8,  9,  17,  100,  103,  105, 

131,   135,   137,   130,   145,  154,  162, 

164,  215,  216,  231,  234,  237,  239 
Egyptian  cotton,  32,  34 
Effect  carelessness,  167,   177 
Efficiency,  4,  6,  7,  96,  216 
Elaborate  designs,  36,  42 
Embroideries,  39,  40,  133,  139 
Embroidery   machines,   39,   40 
Enduring   fabrics   and   clothing,  22, 

41,  44,  48,  70,  107,  116,  117,  128, 

129,   137,  231,  241 
Enduring  fashions,    11 
Energy,  5 

Engineering  Societies,  9 
Eras  of  beautiful  dress,  6,  9,  139 
i  -->  ntial   principles  of  design,   222 
Etamine,  20 
Ether,  212 

Every  woman  well  dressed,   138 
Exhibits,  226,  227,  231,  233,  237 
Expenditures,  11.  110,  129,  149,  150, 

156,    159,   160.    164,  234 
Explosives,  28,  33,  47,  198 
Extension  Service  of  the  U.  S   Dept. 

of  Agriculture,  112,  215,  229,  233 
Extract  wool,   17 
Extravagance,  3,   11,  101.  102.  105- 

107,   126,   127,  145,   147,   161,   173 
Extreme  styles,   122,   132,  136,   157, 

187,  229 
Evaporation,  24,  85 


Fabrics,  cotton.  31,  40,  41 
flimsy,    5,    37 
linen,  70,  71 
silk,  53-57 
varieties,  11 


Fabrics,  wool,  20 

Face  cloths,  20-22 

Factories  making  standard   fabrics, 

233 

Factors   in   textile  situation,   239 
Factory  system,  35 
Family  budget,   100,    102,    109 
Farm  Bureau,  215,  233 
Fashion's  dictates,  5,  6,  9-12,  138 

139,   142 
Fastness,   dyes,   24,   37-39,   41    (see 

Dyes) 

Fatigue,  6,  98 
Feathers,    189 

Federation  of  women's  clubs,  112 
Felt,  19,  20,  24,  161,  188,  189,  200 
Felting  of  wool,  20 
Fiber  growth  and  manufacture,  238 
Fiber    silk,    80 
Fibroin,  49 
Figure,  8 
Filatures,  49 
File  headings,  224,  225 
Filing   cabinet,    223-225 
Finishing,  11,  24,  25,  34,  36,  37,  46, 

57,    106,    114 
Felling,   34,   43,   72 
Fine   drawing,    191 
Firm  names,  119 
Firms  producing,  109 
Flannel,    20,    157 
Flannelette,   127 
Flat  foot,  92 

Flax,  43,  65-68,  70  (see  Linen) 
Flax    industry,    65,    68,  -96 
Flax   seeds,   67,   68 
Flimsy  goods,  5,  37,  56,   130 
Float,'  42 
Flocks,    21,    118 
Floss  silk,  49 
Food  Facts  Bureau,  217 
Foreign  goods,  100,  119 
Foreign    label,    119 
Foreign  modes,   133 
Fostering  simple  dress,   162 
Foulard,  47,  51,  54,  57 
Freakish   styles,    138,    139 
Free    delivery,    111 
Freedom  of  body.  161,  162 
French  chalk,  212 
Friends,  5 


276 


INDEX 


Fruit  stains,  212 
Fulling  of  wool,  12,  21 
Furs,   7,  86,   87,   186,   190 
Furbelows,  9 


Gabardine,  20,   107 
Galatea,  31,  42,   159 
Garments,  6-9,  11,  12 
Garnet  machine,    19 
Garters,  91 
Gasoline,   207 
Gassing,  37,  38 
Gauze,  44 
Gelatine,  57 

General    Federation   Magazine,    121 
General     Federation     of     Women's 
Clubs,  10,  112,  121,  122,  212,  230, 
232 

Georgette,  47,  86,  161,  178,  184,  205 
Germ  life,  25,  88 
Gigging,  21,  38,  118 
Gin,   35 
Gingham,  30,  31,   38,  39,    117,   158, 

160 

Glovejsville,  76 
Gloves,    care,    185,    184 

commercial  cleaning,  191 

cotton  and  lisle  thread,  77 

factor,  3 

home  cleaning,  239 

industry  in  Europe,  76,  77 

industry  in  United  States,  .76 

knitting,  77 

raw  stock,  76 

repaired,  191 

silk,  55,  77 

suede,  76,  77 

wool,  77 
Glycerine,   115 
Golf  suit,  8 
Goods,    11 
Gothic,  5 

Gown,  4,  5,   8,   11 
Graphic  teaching,  215 
Grass  stains,  214 
Gray  goods,   27,  39 
Grease,  212 

Avool,  14 
Great  Grandmother,  5 


Greek,  5 

Green,  7 

Grenadine,    20 

Grief,  7 

Grosgrain,  53 

Guarantees,    52,    119 

Grower,    1 1 

Guimpes,    139 

Gulf  cotton,   32,  34 

Gum,  36,  49,  50,  51,  53,  68 

Gun  cotton,  115 


Habit,  4 

Habutai,    47,    50 

Hackling  of  flax,  65,  68 

Hair,  7 

Hamper,    6 

Handkerchief   linen,   64,   69,   71 

Hand  printing  outfit,  225 

Hard   waste,    17,    35 

Hargreaves,  James,  35 

Harmonious    dress,    132,    133 

Harness    thread,    71 

Hat,   3 

Health,  3,  5,  6,  220  (see  Hygiene) 

Healthful  dress,  127    (see  Hygiene) 

Height  of   women,    6 

Henrietta,  20 

High    cost   of    living,    232 

High-heeled  shoes,   127 

Hint-*  for  care,    190 

Historic  eras,  5 

Hoarding,  29 

Holland,    65 

Home   bureaus,   215,   233 

dyeing,  23,  204,  205,  230 
demonstration  agents,  127 
economics,  112,  121,  215,  216, 

229-231 
courses,  121,  232 

Association,    10,    231 
General     Federation,     122, 

216 

teets  of  fabrics,  133  (see  Tests) 
visits,  227 

Home  maker,  4,  8 

Homes,  9 

ll«Min-|nin    cloth,    20 

Hoop  skirt,  5,  6 


INDEX 


277 


Hoover,   9 

suit,  184 
•Hosiery,  care,  41,  42,  176,  182,  183 

cheap,  80 

choice,   158 

costs,  78,  79,  218 

cut  goods,  78,  80 

dyeing,  79 

enduring,   79,   80 

fiber,   80,    179 

finishing,  78,  79 

full  fashioned,  78,  79 

hand  knitted,  95 

improved  methods,  80 

hi  under  ing,  70,  79,  201 

long  staple  cotton,  79 

machine    made,    95 

machinery,  23,  78,  79 

mqrcerized  cotton,  78 

plaited,  79 

ribbed,  78 

seamless,  78 

seconds,   79 

silk,  55,  80,  130 

too  short,  79 

unenduring,  130 

use  of  old  stockings,  183, 

wool  stockings,  87,  95 
Household  fabrics,  239 

lye,  116 
Housekeeper,    41,    43,   44,    100,    102, 

108,  129,   185,  229 
Housework,  4,  8 

How  to  tejl  textil-e  materials,  61-63 
Hospital,  31,  64,  69 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  59,  211 
Hygiene  of  clothing,  chemical  regu- 
lation of  body,  8$ 

clothing  for  growing  girls,   161 
for  infants,  97,  98 

comfortable    clothing,    90,    161, 
162 

conductors  of  heat,  69,  83,  84,  87 

conserving  energy,  56,  82-84 

constant   temperature   of   body, 
82,  86,  87 

convection,  83 

dangers,   42,  43,   82,   84-87,   89, 
98,  99,  115 

disease  carriers,  89 

effect  of  dye,  98 


Hygiene,  efficient  clothing,  6,  23,  82, 

84-90,   94-97,    130,    154,    161, 

162.  216,  218-220,  237 
evaporation,  69,  83,  85 
feet,  90-94,  98 
freedom  of  body,  161,  162 
hat,  90 
health  and  success,  97,  98,  220, 

229 

heavy  clothing,  86,  89,  94,  97 
ideals  for  health,  82,  220 
ideals   for   shoes,   97,    130,    161, 

220,  222,  231 

improper  shoes,  91-94,  97 
keeping  clean,  69,  88 
keeping  dry,  87,  88 
keeping  warm,  85,  138 
lacking,  82,  86 
laundry,  25,  40,  41,  98 
lowering  bodily  heat,  56,  83,  86, 

97 

maintaining  heat,   86,   87,  96 
men's  clothing,  82,  89,  90,  95 
needs  emphasis,  99 
normal  bodies  tend  to  health,  82 
overheating,  83,  85 
physical  regulation  of  heat,  83 
porous     clothing,     42,     43,     83, 

85,  87,  96,  98 
radiation,    83,    84 
sanitary  conditions,  69,  70 
sensible  standards,  127 
sterilizing,   40,   41 
tenements,  98 
tepdile  uses,  56,  70,  83,  84,  87- 

89,  95,  96 

too  thin   clothing,   86 
too  tight  garments,  6,  90-94 
.underh-eating,  83.   S.l 
underwear,   23,  25,   72,   87,   88, 

96,  97 

ventilated  clothing,  89 
women's    clothing,    82,    86,    89, 

91,  95 


Ideals,   85-89,  94-98,    101-104,    114. 

138,   144,   145,    140.    157 
Immodesty,  87 
Importance  of  dress,  127,   139 


278 


INDEX 


Income,  3,  52,  58,  127,  144,  145,  147, 

151-153 

Inconspicuous    dress,    132 
Indianhead,    42,    74,    159 
Industry,  1,  6,  9,  11 
Industrial  situation,   100 
Inexpensive   muterial.    106 
Infection,  96 

Inflammability,  38,  41,  43,  115,  116 
Influence,  8 
Ink,  114,  213. 
Insulating  feet,  68 
Intelligence,  110,   119,  219,  234,  235 
Inventions,  35 
Inventory,    104 
Investment,  9 
Iron,   59,   61 

J 

Jacquard  loom,  36,  65 

Javelle  water,  211,  212 

Jean,   31 

Jersey  cloth,  20,  77 

Judging  materials,  73,  114,  118 

Judgment  of  the  individual,  4,  132 

Jumper,   134 

Junkmen,    19,    173 

Jute,  33 

Jute  bagging,  33 


K 


Kerosene.  208 

Khaki,  31 

Kid.  75 

Kid  gloves,  76.  157 

Kind    of   clothing    fur    children,    161 

Kindrrgartcn    eloth,    31 

Knit  goods,  caro,  177 

eolton,  23,  75,  78,  H5,  87 
machines,    77-79 
method  of  work.  77  7!> 
mills  in  United   States,  77. 

78 

silk,  80 
price.  7-",,  148 
various  article..  77.  85,  87, 

95.    158.    175 
wool.  23.  77 

jersey     cloth.     20,     77 
(see  Hosiery) 


Labels.    118,   119 
Labor,   costs,    11,   28,  46,    100 
problems,  :54,  35 
scarcity.  2S.    192 
wages,  14.  76,  203 
waste,    107,    131,    132 
Labor  saving  methods,  2  IS 
Laboratory    work.    114,   23-1,    234 
Lace,  7,  39-41,  71,  74,  135,  181,  186, 

189,  329 

Laundry  ammonia,   208 
bleaching,  181,  211 
borax,  207-209 
rare.  25,  176,  180 
careless,  206,  210 
children's    clothing.    98 
colored   clothing,  200,  208 
commercial,    159,    206,    210 
corsets,  209 
oosta,    ">.").    ir>!) 

cotton,  72,   114.   159.    ISO.  210 
diflicult.  44,  73,  88.  109.  159 
easy,  4,  23,  73,   l:n.    158,   159, 

180,   184 
frequent,  72,  98 
good    work,    40,   41,   44 
home  equipment    19,   151 
hygiene.   SS.   S9.  95.  96,    181,  206 

infrequent,  25 

kerosene.  -JOS 

lace.    181 

line,    7 

linen,    66,    69,    72.    73 

lining,   10 

lost  cri-pness.   87 

mechanical  washer,  207 

methods  of   procedure   in    home, 

25.  41.   206 
mode i-n  methods,  200 
prolonging  life  of  clothing-.   -JOT 
ribbon-.    210 
saving   money.    107.    207 

setting     color.     210 

shrinking.    25 
>ilk.    :••>.    60.    61 

-p    bark,    207 

-oap-  :ind   solutions.  70.  I.")!),  207 
soiled  clothing,    isi,   2os 

essentials,  2<n;.  207 


INDEX 


279 


Laundry,  special  articles,  209,  210 

spot  removal,  211 

spotting,  42 

starch,  208,  209 

steam  laundry,  206 

sterilizing,  159.  207 

stockings,   79,   209 

streaking,   42 

sweaters,   210 

test  for,  .1.15 

textiles  ot  various  kinds,  43 

varieties  of  dyes,  210 

velvet  and  velveteen,  210 

wool,  25,   179 
Lawn,  31 

Learning  to  shop,   108-110 
Leather,    65,    70,    75,    76,    93,    119, 

173,   181,  229 
Legislation,  118.202,231 
Leicester  sheep,  15 
Life  Extension  Institute,  82 
Light  weight  materials,  31,  55 
Lincoln   sheep,    15 
Linen.  Austrian,  57,  69 

Belgian,  64,  67-69 

Canadian,  65 

care,  66,  71 

cleaning,    65 

comparing  cotton  and  linen,  64, 
68,  71,  72,  96 

cost,  64-66.   68,  69 

effects,  3L  37 

endurance,  70 

English,  64,  69 

feel,  67,  114 

French,  64.  67 

German,  67 

hygiene,  70 

industry,  65,  68.  00 

Iri^h,  65-68 

judging,  73 

laundry,    66,    69,    72,    73 

taster,  72 

manufacture,  beetling,  66,  70,  73 
bleaching,    66,    67,    70,    73, 

211 

cleaning,  65 
combing.   fi.~i 
crofting,  66 
d.-iiMi.  07,  72 
dressing.  14,  66,  69,  70,  72- 
74 


Linen  manufacture,  dyeing,  70,  73, 
74 

finishing,  66,  70,  74 

hackling,    65,    68 

line,  64,  65,  69,  70,  73 

scutching,  64 

spinning,  65,  68,  70,  72 

sizing,    69 

tow,  70,  74 

weaving,  65 

yarn,    64,    66,    68,   69 
production  of  flax,  appearance, 
62,  65,  68 

by  products,  67 

decorticating  machinery,  68 

fiber,  64,  67,  70,  114 

flax,  3,  65,  68,  69,  72 

flax  seed,  67,  68 

growth,    65 

gum,   68 

labor  in  production,  65.  (is 

retting,  64,  65,  68,  70 

threshed  flax,  68 

wastQ  in  flax,  68 
properties,  69,  71,  72,  83 
repair,  73 

representative    materials,    bag- 
ging, 67 
bedding,  74 
binding  twines,   67 
butchejrs',  70,  71 
canvas,  67,  70 
carpet  yarns,  67,  70 
coarse  fabrics,  67 
collars  and  cuffs,  71 
colored  dress,  70 
cordage,  70 
crash,  47,  67,  70 
damask,  38,  67,  71,  72, 

110,    190 
diaper.  71 

dress,  71.  73,  74,  88,  95 
drilling.  71 
fine.    04 

handkerchief,  64.  60,  71 
harness  thread,  71 
heavy  grades,  70 
Holland,   65,  69 
hospital  service,  64.  til) 
household,    64 
huckaback,  71 
insulating  felt,  68 


280 


INDEX 


Linen,  representative  materials, 
lace,  71,  74,  181,  186, 
189,  239 

linseed    oil,    67,    182 
medium  grades,  70,  71 
miscellaneous,  71 
printed    and    dyed,    71 
ropes,   68,   70 
sacking,    67,    70 
sail  cloth,  70 
sheeting,  69,  73 
table,   71,  73- 
tarpaulin,  67,  70 
ticking,  69-72 
toweling,  69-7 
twill  and  pattern,  71 
twines,   70,    71 
unbleached,    66,    67 
union,  69,   71,  72,    114 
varnish,   67 
Russian,  64,  65 
sales,   73 
Scotch,  67,  68 
shortage  of,  65,  68 
situation,  64,  68 
testing  glass,   73 
tests,  69,  71-73,  83,  114 
United  States,  67,  68 
weight,  66 
Lingerie,   162,   184,  205,  206 

waists,  127,  180 
Linseed  oil,  67,  182 
Lint,    27,    33,    41 
Linters.   28,   35,    11.1 
Lisle,  thread,  38,  58,  77 
Lists  of   clotihing,    105 
Longcloth,   31 
Longitudinal  arch,  92 
Loosely    w*>ven    materials    and    tlio 

laundry,    159 
Loom,  35,  36,  39,  43,  65 
Low-priced  materials  worth  buying, 

218 
Loyalty  to  country,   203- 


M 


Madras,    31.    34 
Machine-made  lace,  40,  74 
Machin<>   <r;illnp.   74 

to  determine  shape  of  shoe,  94 
Magnesia,    212 


Magnifying  glass,  36,    73 
Maintenance    of    even    temperature, 

83,   87,   96 

Making  children's  clothes  at  home, 
160 

plans  for  clothing,  103,  105,  109 
Making  over,  12 
Manufacture,  3    (see  under  Cotton, 

Linen,  Silk  and  W.ool) 
Manufacturer,  9,  10,  11 
Market,   11 
Marquisette,  55 
Matos,  Dr.  Louis  I.,  198,  200 
Mechanical  washer,  207 
Melton,    20 
Men's  shirts,    178 
Mercerizing,  28,  37,  38,  58,  62,  64 

70,  190 

Merchandise  Marks  Act,  118,  119 
Merchant  tailor  clips,  19 
Merino  sheep,   15,  20,  21 
Method  of  carbonizing,  17,  19 
Methods  of  bleaching,  211 
Microscope,  116 
Middle   age,   8 
Middlemen,  11 

Mildew,   181,   183,   186,  201    213 
Milled  rollers,  37 
Millinery,  children's,  161 

conservation,  186-190 

cost,   186,   187 

extreme  styles,   187 

feathers,  187 

hygiene,  90 

ideals,  222 

importance,   187 

kept  in  good  condition,  139 

materials,    187 

putting  away,   189 

renovating,  187-189 

seasonal  conditions  in,   187 

supply,  188 

trimming,    iss 

waterproof.  187 

winter,    161 
Mineral  salts,  3-7,  61 
Mi--i;it«'invuN    in   Uixtiles,   119 
Mnrlia    skin,   78 
Models.    10,    11 
Modern  industry,  35 


Mother,  4 


INDEX 


281 


Motion  pictur)e  as  a  teacher,  6,  237, 

238 

Mounting  samples,  118 
Miu-ilage,  36 
Muscles,  6 
Musical  note,  7 
Mufflers,  58 
Mule,    35 
Museums,    133 
Muslin,   31 

N 

Nainsook,  31,  36,  117,  158,  159 

Naphtha,   191 

Xapthaline,    185 

Napped  surface,   84,   89 

Napping,  15,  21,  41,  43 

National  Thrift  Campaign,  19,  215, 

217 

National  Treasury,  9 
Natural  dyes,  198 

silk,  61 
Nature,  6 
Navy,  7 
Neckwear,    3 

Need   of   the  times,    106,   107 
Neps,  53 
Nerves,    6 
Nettles,  28,  29 
New  Zealand,  9 
Non-essentials,  10 
Novelties,  37 
Novelty  silk,  50 


Occupational  dress,   11,  151,   162 

Office,    8 

Oil,  33,  37,  41,  67,  69,  81 

One  piece  gown,   151,   194 

Opportunities  for  service,  232 

Orange,  7 

Organdie,  31,  37 

Organzine,  51,  54,  58,  62 

Ornament,  5 

Outing  flannels,  31 

Overalls,  138,  163,  184 

Overcoats,  10 

Overdecoration,    138 

Oxalic  acid,  213 

Oxidation,  83 


Paint,  214 

Panama,  231 

Paper  yarn,  125 

Party  frock,  8 

Passementeries,    39 

Patent  leather  shoes,  181,  182 

Patriotism,  12 

Pattern  Houses,  140 

Patterns,   142,    193,  218 

Peeler  cotton,  32,  34 

Personality,    3,   5-7 

Perspiration,  55,  58,  83,  85,  89,  90, 

98,   117,   214- 
Petticoats,  52 
Peau  de  Soie,  60 
Percale,  30,  31,  39,  158 
Peroxide  of  Hydrogen,  211 
Personal  Expenditures,  144,  145 
Personality  in  drees,  132,  139 
Phases  of  dress,  126 
Physical  regulation  of  heat,  83.  84, 

87 

Pickers,  39 
Piece  dyeing,  39,  54    (see  Dyes  and 

Dyeing) 
Pile  fabrics,  23,  42,  54,  58,  117    135, 

157 

Pinnacle.  5 
Pitch  and  tar,  213 
Plain  weave,  23,  36,  44 
Planning  the  wardrobe,   156,   157 
Plush,  23 
Pockets,  130 

Political  and  Commercial  World,  3 
Pongee,   47,    50,   60 
Poor  line,  138 
Poplin,  117 

Population    of    world,    1,    13 
Porous  clothing,  72,  89,  97,  220 

(see  Clothing) 
Posters,  219,  220,  225 
Practical  lessons  on  selection,  240 
Pressing  and  calendering,  37,  101 
Prices,   10,   11    (see  Costs) 
Primitive  arts,  133) 
Principles  of  dress,   129-132 
Printing  and  printed  material,  37, 

30.   57.   71 
Problems,  1,  3,  233 
Processes,   11 


282 


INDEX 


Products,    2 

Professional  womens'  dress,   146 

Program  of  study,  229 

Progress,  230,  231 

Prolonging  the  life  of  clothing,  207 

Properties  24,  25,  40,  52,  53,  61,  72, 
83,  200 

Psychology  3,  5,  6,  8 

Publicity,   227 

Purchase   of    clothing,    10,    11,    121 

Pure  dye  silk,  48,  51,  55,  61 

Putting  clothing  away  for  the  win- 
ter, 185,  186 


Quaker,    5 

Quality,    11 

Questions   in   clothing,   218 

R    . 

Radiation,    84 

Rags,  173 

Rambouillet,    sheep,   58 

Rapid  changes  of  fashion,  9,  58,  107, 

126,   154 

Rapidity    in    dressing,    222 
Ratine/ 20 
Raw  materials,  11 
Raw  silk,  46,  50,  62 

stock  dyeing,  39,  202 
Readiness  for  action,   8 
Ready  to  wear,  9,  10,  12,  113,  114, 

137,   143,   153-155,   160,   173,  216, 

218 
Reclaimed,  regenerated  or  reworked 

wool,   17    (see  Shoddy) 
Reclamation  of  Government,  173 
Record  cards,  118 
Reconstruction,  17,  46,  100,  126 
IN-1.    7 

cloth,   15,  234 
Reeling    38,    49,    51 
Refinement,  7 
Regulation   of  heat.   82.   83 
Reliable  forms,   157.   218 
Removing  spots  and  stains,  175  (see 

Spot*   and    Stains) 
Renaifisan* 
Renovation,  cleaning,  152,  101 

1  of.  101.    102 
cutting  down   for  children,   Ifil 


Renovation,   demonstration   on,    241 
fabrics,    192 

garments,    2,    190-192,    195-197 
Government,     173 
looking  over  garments   11,   193, 

229 

men's  garments,  195 
methods,  178,  179,  195 
planning,    191,   193    (see  appen- 
dix) 

reinforcing,    178 
remodeling,    137,    154,    195-197, 

220,   229,   230   234 
shine  on  clothing,  22,  23,  179 
silk,    61 
using   old    garments,    195,    196, 

199 

using  old   stockings,    183- 
work  connected,    192 
Repairing  clothing,   136 
fabrics,   190 

household    articles,    190 
lack  of,  178 
method,  193 

mixi'llaneous,    174,    190-192 
neat,   178 
shoes,    182 

supplies,    157,    178,    179 
systematic,   11,   174,   177,  178 
Representative  fabrics,  118  (see  Cot- 
ton, Linen,  Silk  and  Wool) 
Resist   dye,    203,   205 
Responsibility,    1,    3,    10    (see    Con- 
sumer ) 
Retail  trade,  abuse  of  privileges,  110, 

219 
approval    goods,    107,    110, 

112,  218 
bargain  basements,  10S,  ].~>7 

counters,  107,  108 
charge    account,     102,     MI:., 

110   112.  220 
classes  for  sales  ^iHs,  233. 

234 

costs,  1 10 
department  stores,  87,   110, 

170.  233 

dependence  upon,  154 
exhibit^.   -2-2'.\ 

free    deliveries,    111 

reliable     linns     157,    218 


INDEX 


283 


Retail   trade,   return  goods,    111 

sales  persons,  111,  113,  234 
self  service  stores,  157 
should     consider     clothing 

ideals,  234 
special    delivery,    1 1 
wastes,   110 

Retting,  65,  70 

Ribbons,  189,  210 

Ridicule,   4 

Rising  cost  of  living,   153 

Romney  Marsh  Sheep,   15 

Rompers,    157,    184 

Royalty,  7 

Rubber,  and  rubbers,  76,  80,  81,  89, 
90,   97,   98,    158,    173,    182,   229 

Rural   districts,   8 

Russian  blouse,    125,    133,    160,    161 

Russian  tunic,   122 

Rust,   214 


St.   Gall,   Switzerland,   39 

Sack,  suits,  10 

Sales   persons,    111,    113,    151     233, 

234 

Salts   of   lemon,   213 
Salvage,    19,    173,    241 
Sanitary  conditions,  69,  70 
Sanitary   in   dress,   238 
Sandalte,  94 
Sateen,  31,  37 
Satin,    7,    205 
Satisfaction,  8 
Saving  junk,  173 

money    or    products,    145,    146, 

207 

Saw   gin,    35 
Scarfs,    7,    77 
Schools  and  educational  institutions, 

231 

Scorch,  214 
Scroop,  37 

Sea  Island  cotton,  32,  34,  58 
Seasonal    conditions    of    trade,    10, 

122,   187 
Seconds,    157 
Seersucker,  37,  159 
Selection  of  clothing,  237,  238,  240 

(see   Choice) 
Self-respect,    4 


Self  service  stores,   139 

Selvedges,   21 

Sensitive  parts  of  body,  83,  84,  86- 

88 

Sensible  shoe,   130 
Serge,    14,   20,   22,   31,   42,   44,    117, 

157,   159 
Sericin,  49 
Serrations,   15,  20 
Service,    6,    8 
Serviceable  clothing,  13,  52,  128,  130 

(see  Clothing) 
Setting    color,    210 
Sewing   cotton,    3l",    71 

course,  234 
Shantung,  50 
Sheep,   countries  producing,    14 

laws,    15 

life  history,  17 

raising,    13-15 

shearing,    14 

varieties,    15 

Sheeting,  30,  31,  40,  69,  71 
Shepherd's   Plaid,   20,   41,   157 
Shine  on  clothing,  179 
Shoddy,    17,    19,  25 
Shoddy  picker,   19 
Shoes,  3,  9 

arches  of  foot,  broken  arch  or 

flat   foot,   92 
feet  differ,  92 
high,  93 

longitudinal,  92 
transverse  or   interior,  92 

artificial  leather,  75 

care,    181,    182 

cheap,    76 

cloth   and   canvas,   75,   76 

children's,   94 

comfortable,   90 

composition    soles,    75,    76 

correct,  94,  220 

correcting  defects,   93,  94 

cost  75 

distorted   feet,  91 

effect   of    fashionable   shoe,    91 
92,  94 

evening   wear,    237 

fancy,    76 

fa-liionable,   91,  93 

flat  heels,  97 


284 


INDEX 


Shoes,  high  boots,  6 

high  heel,  91,  92,  97,  161 

horn,  76,  182 

ideals,  76,  91,  97,  222 

kept  in  best  condition,  139 

leather,  75 

machine  to  determine  shape,  94 

patent   leather,    76,    181,    182 

repairing,    182,    183 

rubber,  76,  80,  97,  182 

sensible,  130 

shape,   91 

special  salesmen,  93 

soles,    75,   76 

too  short  a  shoe,  93,  94 

uppers,  75,  76 

waterproofing,  182 
Shopping,  9,   11,  44,   100,   103,  110, 

111,    119 
Shortage  of  linen,  65,  68 

of  supplies,  68 

Shrinking  37,  38,  44.    113.   159,  211 
Shut  down,   10 
Silk,   adulterations,   52,   57 

artificial,  57,  61,   116 

bales,    50 

care,  61 

comparison  of  prices,  47 

costs,  46,  47,  55 

elasticity,  53 

electricity.   5  1 

enduring   material,    52 

growth,   Bombvx.   Mori,   48 
cocoons,  48,  49,  51 
countries   cultivating,  47 
cultivated    silkworm,    48 
cultivation,  48,  49,   51 
domesticated    silkworm,   48 
fiber,  49,  62,  80,  116 
filament,   49 
moth     l!» 
natural  silk,  61 
raw,  46,  49-51,  62 
silkworm.  41.  46,  48-50,  62 
tussah,  49,  50 
wild   silk,  205 

gum,   49,   50,  51,  r,:j 

hygiene.  83 

Industry,  46.  48 

knit  goods,.  50,  55 

laundering,  53,   56,   60,  61 


Silk,  manufacture,  boiling  off,  51,  58, 

59 

bright,  51 
calenders,  57 
carded,  50 
design.  ->7 
dressing,  57 
dyeing,    4(>-48,    51-55,    GO, 

62,  110,  201 
filatures,  49 
filling,  51,  53,  54,  58 
finishing,  46,  57 
gassing,   58 
gum,    49-51,    53 
hand  reels,  49 
hard   twisted,   62 
lustering,  57 
mills,  46,  50 
organzine,  51,  54,  58,  62 
pressing,  57 
printing,  57 
pure  dye,  48,  51,  52,  54,  55, 

59,  180 
reeled,    46,   48,    49,    51,   55. 

58,  61,  62 

scroop,    53,    57,    157 
singeing,  57 
singles,  49 
souple,   51 
spun,  47,  49,  50,  55,  58,  61, 

62 

tin   salts,  51 

throwing,  46,  49,  51,  58,  (i'2 
tram,  53,  54,  62 
warp,    54,    58    (see   Organ- 

zine) 

waste,  or  floss,  47,  49 
weaving,  41,  46,  48-51 
weighting.  47.  4S  51.  53 

66,   r,s  <n.    116,    181 
yarn,  47,  4!).  54,  55,  57.  5S 
properties,  52,    53 
representative  materials,  braids, 

57 

brocades,   50,   53,   58 
cartridge    cloth,    47 
charmeuse,  56 
chiffon,  50,  55,  61,  135. 

181,     184 

crepe,    53,    54,    56,    60, 
117,    135 


INDEX 


285 


Silk,        representative        materials, 

crochet  silk,  56 
dental  floss,  50,  56 
dress  goods,  53,  55,  57 
Eastern    silks,    54 
embroidery,    50,   53 
foulard,  47,  51, '54,  57 
Georgette,   47,   86,   184 
gloves,  55,  57 
grosgrain,    53 
Habutai,  47,  50,  158 
heavyweight,  53,  54,  70 
hosiery,  53 

knit  goods,   50,  55,  56 
knitting,    53 
lace,  53 
Liberty,   60 
light  weight,  55,  71 
machine    twist,    57 
marquisette,  55,   135 
medium  weight,  54,  70 
mufflers,  59  s 

nets,  53 
novelty,  50 

panne    velvet,    57,    188 
peau  de  soie,  60 
petticoats,  52,  53 
pile  goods,  54,  58,  135 
pongee,  47,  49,  50,  60, 

122,   158 

poplin,  50,   56,   117 

ribbon,  50,  53,  57,  186, 

189 

^-satin,  46,  58,  60 
scarfs,  55,  57,  58 
sewing  silk,  53,  56,  57 
shantung,    50 
silk  with  body,  53 
sport    suits,    47 
stockings,  55,  80 
surah,  54 
surgeons,  56 
sweaters,  55,  57,  177 
^taffeta,  52,  54,  60,  177 
tie   silk,   53 
tussah,  47,  49,  50,  62 
underclothing,    52,    53, 

55,  56 
union  goods,  20,  23,  24, 

55,    56,    58,    71-73- 
upholstery,    53,    57 
velvet,  53,  58,  187,  188 
wash  silk,  49,  50,  56 


Silk,  sericin,  49 
situation,  46 
sponging,  60,  61,  211 
substitutes    for,    52,    57,    58 
tests,  52,  55,  59,  60,  62,  63,  116 
trade  marked  silks,  52 
Viscose  method  for  artificial,  57 
weakness,    48,    63- 
Silfcaline,    39 
Sisters  of  Charity,  5 
Situation    in,    13,    46,    64,    127 
Sizing,  38    (see  Dressing) 
Sk«in  dyeing,  203 
Skirt,  4-6,  8 

Slips  or  under  frocks,   135 
Sliver,   22 
Slogans,  220,  227 
Slub  dyeing,  39,  202,  203 
Snobbery,  5 

Soap  and  Soap  powders,  60,  61,  159, 
180,  200;  206,  207,  209,  210, 
213 

bark,  207 
Society  woman,  8 
Softened  design,  22,  117,  118 
Soft  wastes,  35 
Specific  gravity,  41 
Spending,   9,    149 
Spindles,  3,  4 
Spinning,    21,    35,    36,    38,    68    (see 

under  Cotton,  Linen  and  Wool) 
Spirit  of  the  Age,  5 
Sponging  cloth,  61,  211 
Sport  suits,  47 

Spots  and  Stains,  acting  quickly,  176 
agents    for    removal,    207. 

210,    212-214 
blood  stains,  2T3 
care  175,   176,  179 
coffee  and  tea,  212 
fabrics    that    clean    easily, 

114,    159 
fruit,  212 
grass,  214 
grease.   212 
ink,  213 

materials    that    spot,    59 
methods,   211-213 
mildew,    181,    186,   213 
mud,  61,  181 
paint,  214 
perspiration,   214 


286 


INDEX 


Spots  and  Stains,  pitch  and  tar,  213 
rain,  113 
rust,    214 
scorch,  213 
Spun  silk,   47,   61 
Standard  dress,  124 
Standard  of  living,  9 
Standard  values,  109,  110,  202,  231- 

233 
Standardization  of  textiles,  121,  122, 

162,    231 

Staple,  32,  36,  38 
Staple  goods,  4,  5,  29,  109,  110,  118, 

126,  202 

Starch,  37,  42,  118,  208,  209,  212 
Statistics,   2 
Steam    laundries,    89 
lustering,    22 
power,  35 
Stenciling,   133- 
Sterilizing,  41,  70,  159,  207 
Stockings,  78,  79,  95,   98,   162    (see 

Hosiery ) 
Storing   supplier,    11,   20,    126,    180, 

181,    185,    186 
Stout    woman,    7 
Street  cleaners,   4 
Students    research,   233 
Studies   of  budgets,    147-150,   153 
Style,  9,  122,  132.  136,  15  j 

show,  235,  237 
Subdued  color,  7 
Sudden   fashion   changes,  202 
Substitutes.  .',-2.  57.  58,  76,  231 
Success  in   life.  7,  9,  98 
Suedq  gloves,  76 
Sugar  <>f  l<-a<I.  210 
Sulphuric  acid,   19 
Surah,  54 
Swatches,   157 
Sweaters,    117,    177 
Sweat-glands.  83,  89 
Sweatshop,  89 
S\\  it/t-rlaiul.   V 
Synthetic  dye-,.  198 


Tabby  or  plain  weave,  23,  24 
Tatr.'ta.    52.    54,    60 
Tailored!  suits.  7,  129 
Tailors.  191.  192 


Tannic  acid,   75 
Tanning,  75,  76 
Tar,   213 
Teaehvrs'   dress,    102 

of    textiles    and    clothing,    225. 

229 

Teazel,  21 
Tenements,  98 
Tenter,  38,  44 
Tests,  artificial  silk,  116 

artificial  silk  and  natural  silk, 
62 

breaking,   114 

burning,  52,  59,  61,  62,  115,  116 

chemical,   59,   62,  63,   114,    116, 
117 

clay,  118 

cotton,  39,  42,  62,  6:i,  71.  72 

cotton    mercerized    and    nniner 
cerized,  62 

differentiation,  61-63,  114,  11(1 

dressing,  118 

endurance  59,   109,    116,   117 

fastness  of  dye,  39,  114-116 

fabrics,  36,   52,  59-62,  71     109, 
117,  219,  231 

feel,  25,  60 

finish,  114,  118 

friction,    117 

Government,  114,  117 

horns,  48,  113,  114,  118 

laboratory,   239 

lactic  acid,   117 

light,  60 

linen,  71 

In—   of   weight,  59 

mechanical,  60,  114 

microscope,    116 

napped  goods,  117 

ordinary  silk  and    tu^ali.  62 

p.T-piration,    1  17 

pure   dye,  and    weighted    >ilk.   til 

quality   of  yarn,    115.    117 

raw   silk   and  thrown.   Cf2 

shine,  117 

-potting,  60 

.-oap  Mud  water,  41 .  ('»() 

spun   silk  and   r-eehvl    silk,   62 

<|niii    silk    and    mll.m.   «;•_' 

spun    silk   and   wool,   62 

starch,   118 


INDEX 


287 


Tests,  strength  of  cloth,  10,  117,  231 
testing  stations,  114,  234 
weave,  59,  60,   117 
weighting  48,  59,  61,   116 
yarn,   117 

Tetrachloride  of  tin,  47-49 
Textile,  care,  179,  180 
Textile,  care,   179,    180 

conservation,  238    (see  Conser- 
vation ) 

demand  for  better,  106 
factory,  216 

good   course   in   selection,   234 
hygiene,   69,   83,   84,   87-89,  95, 

96    (see  Hygiene) 
industry,  1,2,31,  35,  112,  163 
in  the  schools,  234-236,  238,  239 
judging,  219    (see  Choice) 
manufacture,  119 
manufacturers,  229 
misstatements,    119 
outlines  for  instruction,  238-241 
paper,  125 
properties,    24,    109,    239     <see 

Properties ) 
requirements,  179 
selection.  132,  160,  161,  216,  229, 

234,  236,  239    (see  Choice) 
service,   64,  232 
situation,    '-otton,    27 
linen,  64 
silk,  46 
wool.   13 

standardization,    231 
study,  11,  229,  239 
teaching  or  training  in,  25,  101, 
105,   106,   109,    110.   112,   121, 
161.   177.  211.  216.  220,  226- 
228,  232,   233.   238,   241 
The    New    Consumer,    VIII 
Thoughtless    spending.    0 
Ticking.  69 

Tight  skirt   a   menace,   130 
Tin  weighting  of  silk,  47,  59 
Tinting.  205.  206 
Tires.  28.  31 

Threefold  ideal  for  clothing  conser- 
vation. 219.  220 
Thrift,  budget   for.    145 

campaign      of      United      States 
Treasury,  9,  19,  173,  215,  217 


Thrift,  care,    173,  217 

club  interests,  163 

everyday  life,  173,  216 

Government,    173 

household,  48,  52 

ideals,    108,    110,    219,    220 

movement,    162,    229,    230,   232, 
239 

renovation  of  clothing,  231 

systematic   methods,    105 

time's    demand,    187 

what  can  the  citizen  do?,  11,  12 
Tow,    68,    70 
Towels,  41-44 

Training,   109    (see  Textiles) 
Tram,  53-,  54,  62 
Traveling,  53,  54,  62 
Traveling  dress,   135 
Tricotine,    107 
Trimming,    134,   139,   140,   158,    159, 

187 

Trunk,  11 

Tunics,  4,  122,  133,  135,  136,  138 
Trousers,  8,  138 
Turkish  toweling  42 
Turpentine  191 
Tu&sah  silk,  47,  49,  50 
Tweed,   20,    107 

Twill  weave,  23,  42,   44,  71,   157 
Twines,   70 

u 

Unattractive  dress,   132,  138,  139 

Unbleached   line,  66 

Unclothed  races,  82 

Underf  rocks,    135 

Undermuslins,  31 

Underwear,  23,  25,  37,  77,  85-88, 
96,  97,  118  150,  176,  211  (see 
Dress) 

Undue  time  spent,   161 

Unfinished  worsteds,  14,  23 

Uniform,  15,  121,  126-128,  138,  186 

Union  goods,  17,  23,  24.  96,  204 
(see  Cotton,  Wool  and  Linen) 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 161 

United  States  Department  of  A°ri- 
culture  14.  15.  185 

Unnecessary  buying,   11 
clothing,    105 
decoration,  138 


288 


INDEX 


I'ji-anitary    textile    conditions,    95 
Upland   cotton,   32,    34 
Upright  spinning  frame,  35 
Up-to-date    garments,     154 


Values,  11 

Variations  in  taste,  151 

Varieties    of    dyes,    210 

of  taste,  11 
Vaseline,   181,  214 
Vat   dyes    200,    201 
Vegetable   dyes,    108 
Vegetable  fibers,  35,  62,  71,   114 
Veiling,   20 
Velour,    20 
Velvet,  7,  134 

Velveteen,  31,  38,  42,   157,   187 
Venetian  cloth  20 
Vestees,  139 
Vinegar,    210,    214 
Violet,  7 

Virgin   wool,    17,    10-22 
Viscose  silk,  57 
Voile,  20,  31,  39,  41,  42 
Vulcanizing,  80,   182 

W 

Wage  earning  women,   151 
Wages,  11 
Waistcoats,    157 
Waists,  5,  6 

Wardrobe,  business  like  conduct  of, 
154,    156,    239 

economical   choice,    108,    154 

inventories  of  clothing,  104,  100, 
219 

looking  over,   103,  104, 

manager  of,  100 

needs,  156 

relying   on    retail    trade.    154 

restricted    11,  106,  132,  145,  156, 
161,  220 

utilization  of  old  garnn  -nt-.   1  t-". 
Warehouse,   1 1 
Warp  or  ends,  34,  36,  43,  54,  55,  60, 

117,  139 
Warmth,  7 
War  service,  8 


Washing,  colored  clothing,  209,  210 

corsets,  200 

gloves,  76,  77 

special  articles,  200,  210 

sweaters,    210 

velvet  and  velveteen,   210 
Washing,   very   soiled    articles,    208 

(see  Laundry) 

Washing   soda,    207,    212,    214 
Wastes,  3,  0,  17,  10,  22,  28,  34,  35, 
105,   107,   100,   110,  110,  124,   136, 
176,    177,    231 
Waste  silk,  47 

Waterproof,   37,   80,   80,    125,   187 
Wax    (cotton),  69 
Wealth,  9 
Wearing,  220 
Weave,   analysis,    116,    117,  238 

compared  with  knitting,  78 

cotton,  38,  39,  41-43 

damask,  67.  7  1 

enduring,    116,    117 

felt,    24 

figured,    42,    236,    237 

gauze,  44.  55 

good  weaving,   25,   114 

hygiene,   05 

Jacquard,   36,  65 

knowing   how.   35 

longfloats,  42,   117 

plaid,    236,   237 

loose.    37.   50 

plain  or  tabby,  23,  36,  44,   157, 
150 

grice  variations,   105,  236 

silk,  46,  40,  58 

serge,  44 

softened,   21,    22,    117,    118 

stripes,  236,  237 

Turkish   toweling,    43 

twill,  23,  36,  44,   157,  150 

velvet,    43 

warp  or  ends.  54.  55.  117,  130 

with   cards,  44,  56,  60 

woof,   weft  or   fiHing.  51,  53,  54 

56,  60,   117 

Weaver'^    rlaM,    115,    117 
\\Vi;rht    of    women,    6 
Weight  of  wool,  clothing,  25,  04 
Weighting,  47,  48,  51,  53,  55,  58-61, 
114,    181 


INDEX 


289 


Well-groomed,    7,    132 
West.  Mrs.   Max,   158 
White  soap,  60,  61,  159,  210 
Whitney,  Eli,  35 
Wild    silk,    62,    205 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  215 
Wise   shopper,    221 

use  of  old  materials,   103 
Womanliness,  7 
Wood    alcohol,    189 
Woof,  weft,  picks  or  filling,  51,  53, 

54,  56,  60,  117 

Wool,  all  wool,  26,  97,  113,  115,  134, 
159 

appearance  of  fiber,  15,  20,  62, 
117 

Angora  goat,    15 

care,  180 

cloth    ideals,    144 

costs,  14,  157,  158 

countries  growing,  13,  14 

crossbred  sheep,   15 

demand  upon,  8,  9 

grease,  14 

Importation,    13 

Leicester  sheep,  15 

length   of   staple.    15 

Lincoln  sheep,   15 

long-fiber,  117 

Merino  sheep,   15,  20,  21 

number  of  sheep,   13,   15 

production,    13 

properties,   24,   25 

pulled,    14 

raise  more   sheep,    13-15 

Rambouillet   sheep,   15 

raw  wool,  3,  9,  13.  14,  21,  22 

Romncy    Marsh,    11,    15 

serrations.     15.    -JO,    21 

shorn,   13.   14,   17 

short    fiber,    15,    20 

situation  in,   13-15 

States  producing,  14 

Stock,   13,   17,  22 

substitutes    for.    1 7 
business    in,    17 
carbonizing,    out    vegetable 

matter.    17.    10 
clips  of  cloth,  19.  217.  241 
extract,    17 
garnet  machine,  19 
hard  wastes,  17,  22 


Wool,  substitutes  for,  junkmen,   12, 

19,   20,    173,   241 
need    of,    13 
old  clothes,   19 
old  rags,  19 
prejudice  against,  17 
reclaimed,    17 
regenerated,    1 7 
reworked,     17,    35 
shoddy,    17,    19,    22 
shoddy  picker,  17,  19 
soft    wastes,    17,    19 
varieties  of,  15,  22 
virgin,   17,   19-22 
wastes,  22 

conditions,    25,    113,    114 
garments,   costs,    14,    150 

hygiene,  83,  89,  94,  95,  97 

(see  Hygiene) 

stockings,  95   (see  Hosiery) 
industry,     United     States     and 

Europe,    15,  20 
demand   upon,    3,   8,   9 
manufacturing,    acid    dyes,   201 
American  dyes,  10,  199,  200 
(see    Dyes    and    Dyeing) 
blends   or   mixtures,   22 
carbonizing,    17,    19 
carded  wool,  3,  17,  20,  21,  24 
carding  engine,  21 
cards,   21 
combed  wool,  22 
dyeing,    201,    202,    204 
flocks,  21 
fulling,  2,   21 
gigging,  21,  118 
knit   goods.   23 
napping,   21 
silver,  22 

steam  Instering.  22 
teazels,  21 
tentering,  38 
woolens,    13,   18-20,  22,   23, 

157 
worsteds,  13,  15,  19,  20,  22, 

23,    25 

yarns,  carded,  18,  20-22,  25 
combed,  22,  25 
cotton  and  wool,  17,  24, 

25 

knitting,  23 
sweater,   20 


290 


INDEX 


Wool  manufacturing  yarns,  worsted, 

33,  117 

representative     materials,     Al- 
paca,   22 
Bannockburn,  20 
basket  cloth,  20 
Beaver,   20,    161 
Bedford  cord,  20,  21 
billiard  cloth,  15,  20,  21 
blankets,    25 
all  wool,  116 

cotton,  38 

horse,  24 

price*   20 
Bolivia,  20 
brilliantine,   20,   22 
broadcloth,   15,  20-23 
bunting,  20 
carded    wools,    20,    25, 

157 

cardigan  jackets,  23 
carpet  yarns,  22 
challie,   20,   22 
cheviot,   20 
chinchilla,    20,    24 
corkscresw,  20 
cotton  warp  materials, 

20,  24 

covert  cloth,  20 
cravenette,  20 
crepe,  20,  23 
diagonals,  22,  117 
doeskin,   20 
duvet   de   laine.   20 
duvetyn,   20 
face   cloths,   20-22 

process  in  making, 

21 

fejt  20,  24 
flannel,    20,    157 
gabardine,   20,    107 
grenadine,   20 
Henrietta,  20 
homespun,    20 
Jersey,  20 
kcrs.-y.  20 
knit  goods,  23 
knitting   yarn.   22 
Lansdowne,  20 
melton,  20 
mohair,  22 
nun's    veiling.   20 
olive  drab,   15 


Wool,  representative  materials,  Ox- 
ford mixture,  107, 
202 

Panama,  23 
Pile  goods,  23,  117 
pin  stripe,  20 
plush,  23 
polo  cloth,  20 
poplin,  20 
—  ratine,   20 

serge,  20,  22,  117,  157, 

159 
shepherd's  plaid,  20,  24, 

157 

Sicilian,  20 
shoe  tops,  20 
Silvertonej,  20 
skirting,  20 
tricotine,  107 
tweeris,  20,  107 
unfinished  worsted,   23 
unions,  20,  23,  113,  115, 

116,    134 
veiling,    20 
velour,  20 
voile,   20 
whipcord,  20 
wool  and  cotton,  20 
woolen     stockings,     87, 

95 

woolens,   20,    157 
worsted     suitings,     13, 

22 

supply,    13 
tests,  25 

yarns  (see  wool  manufacturing) 
Workers,   10 
World's  Work,  4 
Wraps,  106,  155 
Wrinkles  removed,  211 


Yarn   dyeing.   203 
Yarns,    cotton.    34,    36,    38,    42,    58, 
114,   115 

knitting,  23 

linen,    114,    11.1 

wool,    is.  -2(),  22,  25,  117 
Yrllmv.    7 

soaps,  207 

Z 

Zibeline,  20 


YC  95851 


W*R  21 1941 M 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


